Abstract This paper examines the economy of the Song Dynasty (960-1279 CE). It discusses its changes, successes, failures and the influence of Wang Anshi and his reforms. The paper also explores the factors that led to increased economic growth.
Tags: Song Dynasty, China, Northern Song, Southern Song, economics, Wang Anshi
This paper discusses the Taiping Rebellion in the mid-1800s, using Franz Michael's article "The Land System of the Heavenly Dynasty - The Taiping Rebellion: History and Documents".
1,575 words (approx. 6.3 pages), 2 sources, 2005, $ 62.95
Abstract This paper critiques Franz Michael's article titled "The Land System of the Heavenly Dynasty - The Taiping Rebellion: History and Documents, Volume 2: Documents and Comments" published in 1971 in Seattle and London by the University of Washington Press. In this article, the writer examines the causes for and development of the Taiping Rebellion in the mid 1800s.
From the Paper "On the heels of the Opium War and Unequal Treaties that weakened China from the outside in, the Taiping rebellion erupted (see Appendix A). According to some researchers, this revolt was one of the bloodiest civil wars in human history killing between twenty and forty million people (Roberts, para. 1963). Due to increased foreign trade, the displacement of traditional economy decreased income due to opium importation. The Qing dynasty was unsuccessful in curbing foreign influence on China, especially with the rising influence of Westernization."
Abstract This paper examines how Qin, China's First Emperor, is often credited with unifying a country divided and how history also recalls him as a brutal dictator whose heavy-handed tactics resulted in hundreds of thousand deaths, and perhaps, eventually his own sudden demise, destroying his 15-year rule. It also traces the accomplishments and failures of this short-lived dynasty.
From the Paper "Bolstered by both an organized military and an extreme system to control the populace based on negative and positive reinforcements (Legalism), Qin Shihuang successfully ended the Warring States Period in 221BC (Wudi par. 3). Following this, he proclaimed China united. However, while Qin, China's "First Emperor," is often credited with unifying a country divided, history also recalls him as a brutal dictator who's heavy-handed tactics resulted in hundreds of thousand deaths (Schirokauer, 51), and perhaps, eventually his own "sudden" demise, destroying his 15-year rule. "
Abstract This paper studies four ancient dynasties in Chinese history, the Xia, Shang, Zhou and Qin and how they characterize the early beginnings of the culture of politics and society of China, as well as the literature, religion, philosophies and other intellectual and cultural developments that have become the foundations of the contemporary Chinese society. It analyzes the dynamics of these four dynasties and attempts to identify any trends of similarities and differences that emerged during the ancient Chinese civilization. It also develops the stance that the ancient Chinese dynasties have portrayed similarities in political systems and social norms in the society while there have been developments in the cultural system of the Chinese throughout history.
From the Paper "The political structure of the Zhou dynasty changed from being a feudal aristocracy into a bureaucratic government. Because of the division of political work in the governance of the dynasty, the Zhou tribe was able to develop different aspects that are significant to the improvement of human civilization. Although Zhou dynasty also subsisted to the ways and traditions of the Shang dynasty such as ?Oracle bone divination, bronze casting for sacrificial purposes and burying rites,? Zhou dynasty had developed a complex kind of culture, with the emergence of literature in the form of Confucianism's readings and teachings (Theobald 2000). Although Confucianism was already an established philosophical movement during the Shang dynasty, its teachings and philosophy became more popular during the Zhou dynasty."
Abstract This paper explains that the Choson dynasty is marked by the creation of the Korean alphabetic script, the establishment of the yangban, a new aristocracy, and a shift to Confucianism. The author points out that during the Choson Dynasty, many events happened in the West: Columbus discovered America, the Protestant Reformation divided Europe, and modern nationalism resulted in powerful states like Germany, Italy, and Russia and the Industrial Revolution. The author believes that the Japanese domination changed the unique culture of Korea in many ways, basically robbing the people of the Choson Dynasty of their own ways.
From the Paper "In addition, the Korean people began to lose interest in the study of martial arts. The study of martial arts, including weapons, was banned to everyone but the military. The HwaRangDo, whose roots lay in the Buddhist teachings, eventually lost its importance among young people.
While Korea was under Japanese control, many things changed. All competitive sports and martial arts were forbidden. Only the military, which was now under Japanese control, could practice martial arts (Lancaster, 2002). SooBakGi was practiced secretly and soon changed its name again to SooBakDo. Japanese combat arts were first seen in Korea during this time. The people of Korea showed a great deal of interest in this type of fighting."
Abstract This paper discusses how the shortcomings of the Ming Dynasty cannot be blamed on the slave system of eunuchs, but rather on the dynasty itself. It explains how the eunuchs were the slaves of the emperor who carried out his designs and thus were victims in themselves. Though some rose to high power and wealth, most did not. It further discusses how more attention should be paid to the important role eunuchs played in keeping the dynasty alive for nearly three centuries, rather than why they brought the dynasty down.
From the Paper "Throughout ancient Greece, Rome, North Africa, the Middle East, and Asia eunuchs have served a wide range of functions, from palace menials to imperial spies. The dynasties in China, in particular, have used eunuchs to perform various duties throughout their more than one thousand years of rule. The use of these castrati was so engrained in their cultural system that even after disloyal and ambitious eunuchs brought ends to the Han and Tang dynasties, the Chinese never abolished the practice. The Chinese emperors preferred eunuchs for several reasons. Men, especially after the dawn of Confucianism on Chinese society, expected from women their utmost purity and devotion. To adhere to these Confucian principles, Emperors originally employed eunuchs to oversee and manage the hundreds of imperial concubines, making certain no other men, even relatives, come in contact with them, assuring a pure lineage. Emperors also favored eunuchs because they, unable to have children, supposedly would not covet political power or wealth, which in turn they would pass on to their sons. Having no motive for wealth and no ambition for position, eunuchs would have no desire selling palace secrets or conniving with potential usurpers. Ideally the castrati would thus demonstrate absolute loyalty to his employer, the emperor."
This paper outlines Emperor Wen-ti's (581-604 C.E.) rise to power at the onset of the Sui dynasty in China beginning in 581 C.E. until its fall one emperor later in 617 C.E..
Abstract This paper explains that, after the period of dis-unification, Yan Chien proclaimed himself Emperor Wen-ti initiating the Sui dynasty, which was modeled after the earlier Han dynasty. The author points out that the Sui dynasty centralized Chinese power and returned an air of legitimacy to the imperial house; the principles of governance perfected during the Sui Dynasty remained ingrained in imperial China until its dissolution nearly 1,300 years later. The paper relates that Wen-ti chose to demolish the former capitol Ch'ang-an and rebuild it with the help of distinguished architect and engineer Yu-wen K'ai; Ch'ang-an would become not only the center of Chinese political thought but also the center of the Universe, presided over by the "Son of Heaven".
From the Paper "A man of great piety, Wen-ti actively nurtured the construction of Buddhist and Taoist temples and the recovering and re-copying of both religious and secular literature. To further the goals of unification Wen-ti issued decrees on the, "purification of Chinese literary style" (Wright 10). The Emperor offered charters to those willing to build Buddhist temples and both Wen-ti and his empress were to construct several, including one dedicated to her honor after her death in 603 CE. It is said that this temple was to house a tooth of the Buddha brought back by the pilgrim Fa-hsien from India in the fifth century (Wright 89). However pious, Wen-ti and his advisors also saw organized Buddhism as a force that needed constant monitoring in order to retain the Emperor's divine right of pronouncement on all matters of morality and public policy."
Abstract This paper compares the Roman Empire and the Han Dynasty with respect to their leaders, demographics, and economies. The author discusses reasons for the decline of both empires. He further argues that the Roman Empire and the Han Dynasty eventually fell as a result of dire leaders and rulers. Additionally, the author contends that economic problems were a factor in the decline of the Roman Empire and the Han Dynasty as well.
From the Paper "The Roman Empire and the Han Dynasty were two of the largest and most powerful empires of ancient Europe and Asia, respectively. Yet the Han Dynasty lasted for about 400 years while the Roman Empire ruled for about 900 years. Both empires shared many similar and different qualities in their rise to power. However, both empires fell after time. The decline of the Roman Empire and the Han Dynasty both varied with respect to its leaders and rulers, demography, and the economy. Although both empires were massive and powerful during the time, they both declined like all past empires."
Abstract This paper explains that the accomplishments of the Ming dynasty included a geographic expansion of the dynasty, the introduction of a number of administrative innovations, the introduction of a sophisticated system of taxation and equitable division of social responsibilities. The author points out that, during the early Ming dynasty, the elite members of society were subjected to more direct economic controls than in past years, a process that ultimately led to a significant upheaval of the traditional scholar-official power structure in Ming society. The paper concludes that the failures of the Ming rulers were found to include their inability to use the same innovations and complicated power structures to good effect when the Manchu conquest resulted in many of the once powerful Ming eunuchs committing suicide.
Table of Contents
Review and Discussion
Background and Overview
Accomplishments of Ming Rules
Failures of Ming Rules
Conclusion
From the Paper "By the 17th century, China possessed as much as 25 percent of the earth's population and had urban centers with up to one million citizens; these urban centers were five to seven times greater than the largest cities in western Europe; not surprisingly, then, the "silverization" of China would have profound implications for global commerce. In this regard, Flynn and Giraldez note that, "China's tributary system also converted to silver, so we are talking about far more than one-quarter of the globe's population. Conversion of the world's largest economic entity to silver caused the metal's value to skyrocket in China relative to the rest of the world.""
Abstract This extensive paper takes a look at the 300 year rule of the Romanov Dynasty on Russia. The Tzars are each examined for their influence and effect on the area and population. An historical background is described and events leading up to the fall of the Dynasty are detailed - including thorough explanations of events such as the Revolution.
From the paper:
"The Fall of the Romanov Empire was a result of a refusal to move into the modern industrial age. This in turn presented logistical concerns in their ability to keep their vast territory. A succession of weak leadership in the final days sealed the fate of the once great Romanov Empire. Leadership with better foresight and a greater concern for the needs of the people would have prevented the decline of the Empire and they would have been able to survive World War I, with their aristocracy intact.
"he Romanovs ruled Russia for 300 years and built one of the greatest Empires in all of history. The first Romanov Tzar was Mikhail Feodorovich. At this time the empire already encompassed 2.3 million square miles. By the time Nicholas II ascended the throne, in 1894 becoming the last Romanov Tzar, the Russian Empire encompassed 8.5 million square miles. At its peak the empire stretched from Poland to Alaska, and south to California, nearly two thirds of the globe. This provided them with great wealth, and also great logistic and administrative problems as well, which later led to its abrupt end. "
Abstract This essay will examine the political involvement of Buddhism in the period of the Ming dynasty. It will be seen that this political involvement must be considered in terms of the conflict between Buddhism and Neo-Confucianism for dominance in the political life of China. In the time of the Ming Dynasty Buddhism was declining in influence among the Chinese elite and governing class. However, during this era of increasingly autocratic and chaotic political life, Buddhism became increasingly popular among the local and regional gentry class who began to disengage from the official administrative structures of Chinese political life. It will be argued that the Buddhist concept of "withdrawal" had clear political ramifications in this context, and was understood as such by the Neo-Confucian elite at the time, leading to increased criticism and suppression of a belief system that was increasingly at odds with the Neo-Confucian ideology of the Chinese state.
Abstract This paper explains that the society of the Choson Dynasty was purely male-oriented, from polygamy for men to monogamy for women. Women were the suppressed class, subservient to the will of men. The author points out that the "samchong chido", or the rules for women, defined the ethical and moral standards that the women of the Choson dynasty had to observe no matter what. The paper relates that Choson women had a degree of freedom in their complete control of the household, including management of the household, the preparation for ritual ceremonies and festivals, and the education of the children.
From the Paper "Even in the childhood, girls and boys had different status and ranking where the boys were taught and educated, like mathematics, from the age of ten that helped them in their future years, while any girl at the same age of ten was told to stay at home and lead a secluded life from then on. At home, the only activity for the little girls was to rear silkworms and after than spin cloth from the thread produced. In fact this was the only available employment for the Choson women in that era."
Abstract The writer of this paper gives an in-depth account of how women were treated during the Choson dynasty. Confucian marriages under the Choson system introduced and encouraged pervasive elements of sexist discrimination which resulted in virtual doom for the woman of Korea. The writer details the strict repression of women's rights in familial, educational, political and legal spheres which gave the dynasty the unfortunate title of "the dark age for women's culture and women in general." This paper also examines the conflict between traditional attitudes and the imported Confucian ideals on Korean society.
From the Paper "Thus, a woman's life with her husband was hardly freer than the life she formerly led with her father. Indeed, it appears that she became even more of a victim of sexism and mind-control in the house of her husband and his family. During her married life, a woman of the Choson dynasty often faced a joyless life of isolation, severe regimentation, and the constant threat of expulsion. However, if a woman outlived her husband, the oppression facing her would not end."
Abstract This is a brief paper discussing the rise and fall of the Qin Dynasty. It looks at how Qin, the self-proclaimed first emperor was a brilliant militarist and an able politician who was a unifier of China and a tyrant. It also looks at how although Qin's efforts to unify China would bring many successes, his oppressive and cruel rule of the masses, his vanity and careless spending ultimately resulted in the downfall of his dynasty.
From the Paper "Qin, the self-proclaimed First Emperor was a brilliant militarist and an able politician who was a unifier of China and a tyrant. While Qin's efforts to unify China would bring many successes, his oppressive and cruel rule of the masses, his vanity and careless spending would ultimately resulted in the downfall of his Dynasty. By 221BC Qin Shihuang had brought to an end the Warring States Period with his formidable army and imposing belief in Legalism, a system based on the idea that "Man was born evil, and needed a system of rewards and strict punishments to keep him in line. (Wudi par. 3)""
Abstract This paper introduces, discusses and analyzes Chinese history. The paper takes a look at the Han Dynasty, focusing specifically on the tombs of the time, especially the Mawangdui tomb. According to the paper, cave like tombs were as important to the Chinese as the Pyramids were to ancient Egyptians. Imperial Chinese families were buried in the royal tombs, along with many items necessary for a happy life after death. The paper discusses how the Han Dynasty created some of the most remarkable Chinese burial tombs, and created the great trade route known as the Silk Road, which greatly aided China and Asia in world trade.
From the Paper "Two of the tombs contained numerous fragments and entire pieces of silk material, which are some of the first silk remnants found in China. Cang's wife was found wrapped in eighteen layers of fine silk, while there were numerous silk manuscripts found in all the tombs. The excavation is the oldest known in China, and so indicates the first silk findings in the country's history. They indicate early silk was exceptionally light, delicate, and beautiful, but under the right conditions, it survived thousands of years. Most people associate silk with garments and even home decor, but the finds in the Mawangdui indicate silk had another very important use in preserving Chinese culture. Scholars used silk as a writing medium, and bound the delicate silk pages into books. Over 30 of these books were unearthed in the Mawangdui tombs, and they indicate the level of learning and scholarly discourse during the zenith of the Han Dynasty. Archaeologists also found maps painted on silk, and silk T-shaped wall hangings depicting life and culture during the Han Dynasty (Doar). Thus, the Mawangdui tombs represent one of the most important excavations in Chinese history, especially when it comes to the significance of silk in the culture and society."
