Abstract This paper relates the major events of the life of the German Jewish writer Heinrich Heine, who was unable to escape persecution as a Jew by converting to Christianity. The writer explores how his poem "The Loreley" can be interpreted both as reflecting his hope for a new national identity in Germany that would include an integration of traditional German and Jewish culture, and as a message to the Jews to take pride in and stick with their own culture.
From the Paper "Heinrich Heine's life story demonstrates the hardships faced by those born Jewish in nineteenth century Germany. Heine was born to Jewish parents in 1797. He studied law and eventually wanted to have a career teaching at a university. Unfortunately for Heine, university professorship was a career option not available to Jews at the time. Rather than dismiss his vocational aspirations, Heine converted to Protestantism. As Heinrich soon discovered, conversion did not solve any of the underlying problems. A converted Jew, Heinrich was shunned by Christians for his Jewish background and by Jews for denouncing his faith. The road to Jewish emancipation had forked, with both directions leading to dead ends."
Abstract This paper gives a historic overview of the Crusades from an Islamic perspective. Additionally, the author considers the Crusades from political and religious perspectives. The paper traces the consolidation of the Muslim world and the mass conversions to Islam. Also presented are the changes in Islamic outlooks from being open to outside influences such as science to a more dogmatic faith. The paper concludes by contrasting the centralized European church with the more factional Islamic world.
From the Paper "The Western powers fought the Crusades against the Muslims for several reasons, of which the religious element was only one. The Muslim world at the time was divided into factions, and Muslim Spain had started to go its own way in the eighth century. Much of the Muslim world was by then under attack from the Seljuk Turks, but the Muslims were also in control of the Holy Lands, the seat of Christianity. In the eleventh century, European Christians set out on the Crusades to recapture the Holy lands, especially the city of Jerusalem. The Crusaders saw an opportunity because of the divisions within the Muslim world at that time. The Christian world also suffered its own divisions, such as the splitting off of the Byzantine Empire because of the disintegration of the Holy Roman Empire. This left the Greeks in power in the East, while the remains of the Roman world were in power in the West. The Church now had eastern and western factions."
Abstract This paper is a short discussion of Augustine's conversion of faith, towards the church and away from Gnosticism and skepticism, and how this conversion coincides with the changes in his will and sexual appetite.
From the Paper "In The Confessions, St. Augustine goes through three distinct intellectual conversions in his adult life that led to the ultimate goal of conversion of his will toward God. Augustine's method is extremely philosophical in nature. The first stage of his conversion is acceptance of Manicheism; a doctrine he continually criticized throughout the book. The second stage is somewhat of a transitional period in Augustine's life where those philosophies he accepted with the Manichee faith are challenged and rebutted. The third and final stage of Augustine's intellectual conversion and subsequent conversion of the will is his appraisal of neo-platonic philosophy. Although Augustine remains is concerned about how conversion may affect his lifestyle and sexual appetite throughout the book, his intellectual progression ultimately leads to his conversion."
Abstract The paper explores the Children's Crusade in 1212, when thousands of children in Germany and in France marched willingly to their deaths in the horrifyingly naive belief that they could return the Holy Sepulcher into Christian hands. The paper discusses how this is among the more lugubrious tales that have been passed down to us from the Middle Ages. The paper reviews what made these children believe they could do what battle hardened armies could not and it examines how they behaved on their fateful march and what ultimately became of them.
Abstract The paper discusses Pope Urban II's call to Crusade and the altruistic or self-centered motivations Christians had for joining. The paper then shows how, although the objectives are in many ways reversed, the contemporary jihadist is similar to the medieval Christian Crusader.
From the Paper "Pope Urban II's call to Crusade at the Council of Clermont in 1095 was one of the seminal moments of medieval Christendom. Though recorded only after the fact by contemporaries, and known today only through fragments, the speech captured much of the ethos of the period, directed as it was toward social ideals as they were interpreted by each of the classes of society. Essentially, the Pope's address concerned a call to Christians to put aside their internal differences and come to the rescue of Christians and Christian sites in the Holy Land. Under continued assault from the Muslim Turks, the re-capture of the Holy Land, and its being made safe for Christian pilgrims, would represent a coming together of Europeans in the name of the highest ideals of the Church. Western Europeans of every rank and nationality responded enthusiastically to the Pontiff's appeal. Yet, their motives may not always have been wholly selfless or purely religious."
Tags: religion, faith, salvation, territory, materialism, jihadist, Islam
An analysis of the First Crusade, which was the first global mobilization of a military force, as well as the first instance of combative regimes between two of the worlds largest religions.
Abstract This paper views certain extracts from eye witness accounts of the complexities of the march to and fall of Antioch and Jerusalem and its retainment as the Holy city as the birthplace of Christ and all Christendom in the First Crusade. With an aim of demonstrating the organizational change of the view of the people of the era and correct representation of the facts, two verbose quotations of authoritative figures who were present or involved in the Crusaders are included to aid enlightenment as to the situation from the eyes of observers.
From the Paper "Pope Urban II dealt with the concept of negating the commandment that "thy shalt not kill" in relation to what will come of those who fell on the battlefield fighting against the hoards of Moslems to retain Jerusalem. In a statement to the realm of Gaul he said: You have modestly expressed a desire to know whether those who have recently died in war, fighting in defence of the church of God and for the preservation of the Christian religion and of the state, or those who may in 'he future fall in the same cause, may obtain indulgence for their sins. We confidently reply that those who, out of love to the Christian religion, shall die in battle fighting bravely against pagans or unbelievers, shall receive eternal life. For the Lord has said through his prophet: "In whatever hour a sinner shall be converted, I will remember his sins no longer." By the intercession of St. Peter, who has the power of binding and loosing in heaven and on the earth, we absolve, as far as is permissible, all such and commend them by our prayers to the Lord."
Abstract This paper begins by discussing how the expanding Roman Empire clashed with the Greeks in ancient times, with the result being war. It then looks at the consequences of contact between Rome and barbarians in general; how the Empire considered itself superior and the ramifications this had. The paper then discusses the contact between Christians and Muslims during the Crusades and then examines the relationship between Jews and the new religion, Christianity in the first century AD. It concludes with a discussion of the between Sung Dynasty of China and Mongols in AD 1279.
From the Paper "In the ancient world, the most likely occurrence when a culture or concept came into contact with another culture or a transforming concept from the outside in the areas of art, religion, and politics was, pure and simple: war, and more than this, a war of conquest that served as its own legitimation. This is what happened when Roman expansionism throughout the Mediterranean area and westward into Europe encountered the long established but, by the time of Rome's first foray into Greece in 200 BC, well past the reputation and power of Alexander the Great (Spodek 154)."
Abstract The paper describes the period of the Crusades and Crusader rule in the Holy Land. The main focus is on their impact on Islam and the Middle East. Examines the concept of 'holy war' and how the battle between religious control of the masses developed.
From the Paper "Traditionally, authors have defined the Crusades as an expedition to the Holy Land. The clergy, on the other hand, have always referred to them as great pilgrimages. Both conveniently package these events into a number of numbered crusades, beginning in 1095 and ending in 1291. This approach, however, is quite simplified, given the fact that the Crusades were not discrete and unimportant pilgrimages, but a continuous stream of marching Western armies into the heart of the Muslim world, culminating in the creation and consequently the fall of the Latin Kingdoms in the Levant. The Crusades were a Holy War of Western Christianity against Islam, the first great clash of civilizations, in which the greater part of Western Europe united against the infidels East of the Bosporus."
Tags:crusaders, crusades, holy, islam, jerusalem, land
Abstract This paper examines the first and third Crusades in terms of their success and failure and ultimately their impact on Christian-Muslim relations in the Middle East. The author describes the first Crusade and the eventual internal conflicts among the Christians that allowed Muslims to rise up against the Europeans. Leaders on both sides are described, especially Saladin. The paper gives historic details of various battles, with particular emphasis on the fight for control of Jerusalem. The paper includes a discussion of anti-Western attitudes by Muslims that may have developed as a result of the Crusades.
From the Paper " Generally speaking, the First Crusade was ignited in 1095 by predominantly French Christians whose main intention was to seize the sacred city of Jerusalem from Muslim control. This First Crusade was considered as a magnificent success in 1099, due to the crusaders conquering Jerusalem and maintaining control of the Holy Land for seventy-eight years despite much Muslim restlessness and bitter resentment. Internal conflicts among these crusaders then began to increase as a result of more nations joining in their actions against the Muslims. Some of these conflicts include arguments on leadership, political differences and war strategies."
Abstract This paper compares Donald Queller's "The Fourth Crusade" to other contemporary books regarding the Fourth Crusade and contrasts between them.
From the Paper "In The Fourth Crusade, Donald E. Queller describes both the political and financial motives that led to the fourth crusade to Constantinople. Through heavy use of primary sources, the entire journey is told in a story-like fashion. Unfortunately, this story is not one without opinions. The Fourth Crusade is filled with Queller's personal opinions about both the historical event and contemporary historians. While these can sometimes be distracting, they neither take away from the significance of this study nor alter the historical facts. Queller's work, by all means, is one of the better historical studies of the events leading up to the sacking of Constantinople."
Abstract This essay examines the writings of Villehardouin in, Joinville and Villehardouin, "Chronicles of the Crusades". Great care is taken in examining this work from a militaristic approach with regards to Villehardouin's merits, biases, and historical accuracy. While a familiarity with the time period and the Fourth Crusade is helpful in gaining full understanding of this work, care has been taken to make the text usable for the layman as well.
From the Paper "The fourth crusade can be said to begin in 1198 when pope Innocent III encouraged yet another crusade into the holy lands. The merits of this individual crusade make defining an ending date rather hard. Possible dates for ending this crusade could range from its roots in 1201 with the deal struck with the Venetians, to as late as 1311 when the last of the Franks were destroyed by rebellious mercenaries, but most likely falls sometime in between. Villehardouin's account takes in to consideration the relatively small, but vastly important amount of time from 1198 to 1207. From its onset the crusade seemed to be doomed. Its chosen leader, Theobald of Champagne died before the expedition even began. Of not is that Villehardouin, writing his words years later, doesn?t connect the early misfortunes of the crusaders as signs of its eventual failure, though it is important to note that Villehardouin no where mentions that the crusade was a failure in anyway. Perhaps this is because of the rather abrupt ending to his book which may have been due to his death."
Abstract In this article, the writer discusses whether the First Crusade was based upon economic motives or upon genuine religious sentiments. The writer highlights that this issue of economic versus religious causes is controversial, but there is a general historical consensus that the First Crusade, initiated by Pope Urban II on November 27, 1095, was primarily motivated by religious fervor and determination to establish Christian control over Jerusalem and the Holy Land.
From the Paper "For decades, most Western historians considered the First Crusade and subsequent crusades to be colonial ventures based upon economic motives, and dismissed the idea that the Crusades were motivated by genuine religious sentiments. It is only recently that modern scholars have acknowledged that Christian faith may have been the primary motivation, and that the economic advantages Europe gained after the First Crusade were of secondary consideration for the Crusaders."
Abstract The paper examines the events experienced by Eleanor of Aquitaine and her first husband Louis while on route to Jerusalem during the Second Crusade. Although Louis would be viewed favorably for his efforts, Eleanor would be plagued for the rest of her life with rumors of impropriety and incest.
From the Paper "Pernoud records the couple's stay at Antioch in much the same way as Seward. However, Pernoud seems to give more credence to the possibility that an unnatural closeness may have existed between Eleanor and her Uncle. ?If we adhere to historical fact, it seems unquestionable that Eleanor acquired a bad reputation at Antioch.?(Pernoud,72) He states that the charge of incest was leveled by the chronicler, "William of Tyr, who cannot be dismissed lightly" (Pernoud,72) Despite this assertion, Pernoud also insinuates that Eleanor's reputation may have been the result of her open disputes and disagreements with her husband Louis while displaying complete agreement with her Uncle. Seward does not mention William of Tyr by name, his account states that the only chronicler to make this allegation wrote of them forty-years later. Seward also relays that contemporary authorities have found no evidence to conclude the possibility of incestuous behavior on behalf of Eleanor or her Uncle. "
Tags: antioche, aquitaine, armour, christianity, constantinople, crusade, eleanor, france, holy, jerusalem, knights, land, louis, queen, religion, war
Abstract This paper presents an examination of health issues in the Jewish faith. The paper outlines many of the beliefs of the Jewish culture and how these beliefs can affect the care of a Jewish patient. The paper then explains how nurses can comply with the beliefs of the Jewish patient in their care.
From the Paper "America has always prided itself on its cultural diversity. Millions of immigrants each year flock to its borders for the purpose of living in a land where all cultures are embraced. While America works hard to embrace the diverse traditions of its residents there are areas in which the differences can create complications. One of those areas is the health care field. In the field of health care nurses are charged with the care and advocacy of their patients and the patients? families. Within that scope it is important for the nurses to understand and work with the different cultures they may encounter. The Jewish culture is a unique one in the field of medicine as there are a disproportionate number of Jewish doctors in the field when compared to other cultures (The Healers..http://www.geocities.com/buddychai/Religion/TheHealers.html), but that does not carry into the nursing field. "
Abstract The paper discusses the main motivators of the Crusades. The paper further examines how the historian Riley-Smith reminds us that violence was normal and widespread during this historical period and how the Church was unable to distance itself from this violence. The paper analyzes the historical relationship between the Christians and the Muslims.
From the Paper "The main motivators of the Crusades were many and various. The historian Riley-Smith reminds us that violence was normal and widespread during this historical period (i.e. the Middle Ages), and furthermore that the Church was unable to distance itself from this violence. He also points out that although the common people of the time had some prejudices against Muslims, regarding them as idolatrous polygamists, they did not have such a complete set of prejudices that they would have been motivated to go off and fight a long way from home. However, what was important was that over a period of centuries, society had become thoroughly militarized."
