Abstract This paper critically explores and analyzes the origins, defining features, and practical implications of Oliver Cromwell's vision of the English Republic. The thesis is argued that Cromwell's vision was defined not so much by ideology, belief or philosophy as by a conviction that compromise and moderation were central to the government of England during the particularly divisive seventeenth century. The paper contends that, only through an understanding of Oliver Cromwell's vision of moderation as key to the resolution of civil strife, can we be begin to understand his achievement in navigating the ship of state during this highly disruptive period.
Outline:
Introduction
A House Divided
The Divisive Seventeenth Century
Squaring the Circle: Resolving Cromwell's Contradictory Vision
From the Paper " Critics argue that it was Cromwell's youth growing up within an England in which the commercial classes and local squires were growing in power that contributed to his vision of an English Republic: "To all this new idea of government by squires and merchants Cromwell was born; in all this he grew up; all this was native to him when he appeared, almost thirty, in the first of the new rebellious Parliaments" (Belloc 13). Indeed, Cromwell's behaviour during the Long Parliament gives us critical insights into how at this early stage in his political career - long before he rose to near absolute power - Oliver Cromwell perceived the English Republic."
A discussion on how well Henry VIII was served by his ministers, focusing on the roles of Wolsey and Cromwell, with a brief look at the lesser lights of Henry's reign, More, Fox, Warham and Gardiner.
Abstract The following paper examines how well Wolsey and Cromwell supported Henry's ambitions to be a great and grand king. The writer argues that Wolsey's role was to administer, whereas Cromwell reformed and created, and it was mainly due to his efforts that the reign of Henry VIII is seen as a critical point in the transition from medieval to modern government.
From the Paper "A succession of ministers served Henry VIII during his reign, although today only two, possibly three, names come to mind. Cardinal Wolsey and Thomas Cromwell were the two pre-eminent servants of Henry's reign with others such as Fox, Warham and Gardiner taking a lesser role. Sir Thomas More is possibly better known today for a modern play about him than for what he achieved in three years as Lord Chancellor after Wolsey's fall."
From the Paper "Oliver Cromwell and British Destiny
Introduction: The Reformation
The Reformation was a political and religious revolution that was ongoing in Europe throughout the 16th century. Turmoil was created within many European monarchies when the central tenet of state religion, in most cases Catholicism, was challenged for political or religious reasoning (Tudors and Stuarts, 1997).
In England, Henry the VIII sought to break the ties to the Catholic Church in 1529. His reasoning dealt with centralizing power and obtaining an heir to the throne. In order to work his will, Henry the VIII convened a Parliament to help him draft new laws and policies. In this way, Henry the VIII set a precedent for latter clashes of power between Parliament and ruling authority."
This paper discusses Christopher Hill's "The World turned Upside Down", which is considered the best historical account of the English Revolution of the 17th century.
Abstract This paper explains that Hill's book, which broke new ground in historical investigation, brings forth a story of a revolution that was quietly taking place in England while Oliver Cromwell ordered the beheading of Charles I. The author points out that the Levellers, Quakers, and Diggers, together with other minor shared a common vision and tried to introduce change in the strict political and social systems of Britain. The paper relates that, while the movements fell apart with the restoration of monarchy, these visionaries are responsible for implanting the seeds of change, which later led to development of a modern, more equal, and fairer society.
From the Paper "The one major weakness of the book is the inability of the author to trace the true identity of these radicals. Who were they, which income group did they belong to, which area had they come from and were there more radicals in one area and less in another. Well these questions have largely remained unanswered as Hill focuses on their aims and accomplishments. We must also not forget that while these radical groups had one specific aim such as social and political change, they did not stand united on every issue. There were some division of thought, which might have been the cause of their failure later in 17th century, but their unity for most part was the main highlight of this radical period."
Abstract This paper provides a brief explanation of the politics and personal relationship that led to the downfall of Anne Boleyn, second wife of Henry VIII, and mother of Elizabeth I. The author examines the king's intense desire for his wife, and his even greater desire for a male heir to the throne.
From the Paper "On Friday, May 19, 1536 , Anne Boleyn, former Queen of England, was executed for high treason and adultery, her head severed from her body by an expert swordsman, the only concession given her by her ex-husband King Henry VIII. How, in so short a time, had the woman that Henry had defied the religious tradition of England for, divorcing his wife and changing the history of religion in his country, whom he pursued relentlessly for years, fallen so far, so quickly? To understand one must examine Henry's desperate need for a male heir, understand the politics of the time, and the personality of Anne Boleyn herself."
Abstract This paper explores the relationship between politics, religion, and literature from James I through William III, paying special attention to the move towards greater religious toleration in England as well as the rest of Europe. The literature of John Donne and John Milton is used to exemplify the changing times and numerous quotes from outside sources are used to back up main points.
From the Paper "The 17th century was a time of great political and religious unrest in England. The era saw both passive and militant Protestants and Roman Catholics be put on the throne, as well as the first and only Lord Protector in Oliver Cromwell, in the country's quest towards ultimate religious toleration. Most of the political upheaval of this era can be traced to fundamental religious differences dividing the country at the time. Brave and ground-breaking literary figures such as John Donne and John Milton emerged during this era, questioning the traditional values that had stood for so long as integral parts of the Church, playing their part in extending the fractioning of Christianity that had been started a century before by Martin Luther. By the time of the Restoration the view of Kingship would have changed considerably and great strides toward the goal of religious tolerance and understanding among the growing number of sects would be made."
A study of the years 1644-1645 during the English Civil War when Parliament was in crisis. The paper asks how Parliament recovered the situation during 1645, and whether the King could have still have won the Civil War in this period.
Abstract An examination of the military position of both sides of the English Civil War at the end of 1644, an assessment of the strategies of both sides such as they were, and an appraisal of the measures taken during 1645. The paper shows how the formation of the New Model Army, and the impact of Naseby were two crucial elements which turned the war in Parliament's favour, with the third being a refocusing of Parliament's efforts towards a 'win the war' policy.
From the Paper "Might it therefore be said that the military outcome of the war remained in the balance until the campaigns of 1644 and not 1645 ? The answer is probably not. Despite the fact that the North had been lost through Rupert's defeat and the subsequent departure for the Continent of Newcastle, the only one of Charles' appointed grandees to achieve any real measure of success, Parliament failed to follow up any advantage it had gained. Crucially, Parliament had no overall strategy which they all could follow and the three armies split up immediately after the battle, each pursuing its own aims. The Scots marched to besiege Newcastle, Thomas Fairfax stayed in his home county of Yorkshire while Manchester, commander of the Eastern Association forces, returned home and "did as little as possible" (Davies). For the royalists, while Marston Moor had been a severe blow, the defeat had been a setback and certainly not the end of their cause."
An assessment of the relative responsibility of the King, the Army officers and the Army rank and file for the complete failure of negotiations during the period following the First English Civil War.
Abstract The paper proposes that following the First English Civil War in the years 1646-1649, King Charles was ultimately to blame for the failure to reach a settlement. It examines his aims and actions, his duplicity and attempts to play his opponents against each other. It assesses the role of the New Model Army, and discusses the increasing radicalization of the Army, and its impact on a weakening Parliament.
From the Paper "The period following the end of the First Civil War was one of increasing radicalization in politics. It saw the rise of the Army as a new force in the political life of the country, primarily at the expense of Parliamentary authority. It saw the decrease in power of the Parliament which was eventually reduced through outside pressures to the Rump of late 1648. It also saw the final steps to the trial and execution of a reigning monarch on charges of treason against his own subjects. Time and again Parliament attempted to reach a settlement with Charles; their attempts were consistently thwarted both by the intransigence of the King and by the desire of the Army for a resolution of the crisis which would satisfy their own political demands."
Abstract Sir Thomas More, also known as Saint Thomas More (because of sanctification by the Catholic Church), is probably best known for his confrontation with King Henry VIII, for which he lost his life. He was a statesman as well as a political and social philosopher. The paper shows that his most famous work is "Utopia", a book in which he created his version of a perfect society and gave his name to such conceptions ever after as "utopias." The paper analyzes the 1966 film "A Man for All Seasons (Fred Zinnemann) which recounts the story of More's refusal to change the law to allow King Henry VIII to divorce. The paper shows that the essence of the film is true to history, but there are elements in the film which are not.
From the Paper "Contemporary evidence shows that More was a docile servant to Wolsey, while the film shows More railing against the Cardinal. More depended on Wolsey for position and advancement and so was careful not to give offense until after Wolsey fell from disgrace because he failed to gain papal approval for Henry's divorce. While More did later write with ironic wit about those who had flattered Wolsey, Marius says it is clear that More offered just as much flattery as the others (Marius, "A Man for All Seasons" 72)."
Abstract The Glorious Revolution in the seventeenth century involved political and social change, religious ferment and took place at the same time as new scientific interests were being evoked. This paper looks at the events of the late seventeenth century, culminating in 1688 where the Crown was left with almost no power over Parliament. The paper examines England's move away from absolute monarchy and its move toward civil liberties, free speech and free religion.
From the Paper "The intellectual underpinnings of the revolution can be found in the beginning of the Enlightenment. The Enlightenment is the name given to the period in European history when writing and thought in general was characterized by an emphasis on experience and reason. This meant there was a mistrust of religion and traditional authority, and one result was the gradual emergence of the ideals of liberal, secular, democratic societies. The Enlightenment is associated with a materialist view of human beings, an optimism about human progress through education, and a general utilitarian approach to society and ethics. The movement can be discerned in England in the seventeenth century with the writings of Francis Bacon and Thomas Hobbes; it is seen in France with the new emphasis on unaided reason as expressed in the works of Ren?? Descartes."
Tags: Protestant, Putney, Debates, Enlightenment, James, I, Cromwell
Abstract This paper discusses why the execution of Charles the First was not followed by a speedy settlement. It looks at the English society at the time and examines why the years following the execution were filled with conflict between all sections of society and between many of the new Protestant religious sects which began to emerge in the new atmosphere of near-toleration.
From the Paper "The execution of the King in 1649 came after a series of abortive attempts by various elements within both Parliament and the Army to reach a settlement which would have allowed the King to remain as the head of state of the three kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland. Charles had refused them all and had eventually been responsible for the Second Civil War which ultimately sealed his fate. Events immediately following the conclusion of the war showed the way in which politics in England would be influenced by the bayonets of the Army until the Restoration in 1660 when George Monck would lead his troops through England and demand the return of Charles II. Colonel Pride's purge of those mainly Presbyterian MPs who it was thought would not support the trial of the King clearly illustrates the way in which the Army had become as much of a factor in government as either the King or Parliament."
Abstract The paper discusses the intellectual origins of this periood, the birth of pre-enlightenment ideas (Hobbes, Locke, etc.) and religious tension between the Puritans and Anglicans. The author presents the sources of the conflict: Charles I's desire to impose Anglicanism on England and Scotland, Parliaments yearning for more power, the rise and fall of Cromwell's Commonwealth, anti-Catholic fears and the "Glorious Revolution". The paper points out changes from this period : They Wrought: English Bill of Rights, end of tyrannical monarchs, and greater Parliamentary control. The author explains the impact on history from this time: Progression toward a three-tiered, modern government and secular ideas of progress and rights of the individual, which would become the foundation for the Enlightenment and fuel the French and American Revolutions.
Abstract This essay discusses Anna Trapnel's "Report and Plea," which is a narration of her trip to Cornwall and her imprisonment and release. We see that much of her prophecy revolved around criticizing Cromwell.
Abstract Ireland's culture is diverse and extensive. This paper sheds light on many aspects that make Ireland a unique country. A heavily-sourced essay that covers the geography, culture, history, and economy of Ireland.
From the Paper "Due to rising tension and resentment of British rule over Ireland an uprising of Irish citizens began on Easter Monday April 24, 1916. Patrick Pearse read a proclamation announcing the establishment of the Irish republic under an interim government. Elsewhere in Dublin, armed men of the Irish Citizens Army took control of four key points in Dublin. The Irish Citizens Army received assistance from Germany, which was a key factor in them obtaining supplies to aid the revolution against Britain. This particular revolt was unsuccessful, yet it led the way for further revolts (Irelandseye, 2002)."
This paper discusses the different ways power is depicted in William Shakespeare's "King Lear", Book I of John Milton's "Paradise Lost", and Francis Bacon's "Of Plantations" and "The Idols" from his "Novum Organum".
1,205 words (approx. 4.8 pages), 3 sources, 2004, $ 41.95
Abstract This paper explains that, whereas Shakespeare sought to depict power struggles in terms of personal conflicts and the differing methodologies of self-interested individuals who held conflicting principles, Bacon saw man as a perfectible creature that was capable of shedding dogmatic hindrances and becoming the progenitor of a utopian community. The author points out that Milton dealt not with men at all, but portrayed divine characters in a human manner that illustrated a political context for the power struggle that was, in his time, internalized by many Christians. The paper stresses the one thing that all these writers share is that they were seldom out of favor with the political apparatus of Britain; Shakespeare and Bacon were often apologists for the monarchy, and Milton was a favorite of Cromwell's Puritan regime.
From the Paper "Here Shakespeare illustrates a contradiction between well-meaning, honest people and manipulative, power-hungry people. One of the themes of King Lear is that honest people, who we might desire as leaders, behave in a way that is limited by the parameters of their integrity. As with the case of Cordelia, this leads them to say some things that are met with reproach. On the other hand, the actions of power-hungry people are not limited, but rather they are structured in a way so as to achieve an optimal outcome, and to get power at any cost."
Tags: personal, conflict, utopian, divine, political
