Abstract Schumpeter's economic theories as they are outlined in "Capitalism, Democracy and Socialism" differ significantly from the neo-classical view of economics. The neo-classical view is outlined-with reference to Adam Smith as a representative neo-classical economist--and contrasted with Schumpeter's theories. Schumpeter's absorption of Marxism, his views on markets and monopolies, and his ruminations on the future of capitalism are highlighted and contrasted with the neo-classical paradigm.
Abstract Classical conditioning is a form of learning in which the subject begins to associate a behavior with a certain stimuli. This paper discusses classical and operant conditioning, rephrasing what they are, and explaining them with real-life examples.
From the Paper "In classical conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus (something that will always lead to a reaction of some type) leads to an unconditioned response (a natural reaction to the UCS). A neutral stimulus (NS) becomes paired with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS). This is also called the Pavlovian conditioning because Ivan Pavlov discovered classical conditioning in an experiment involving dogs. Eventually, the pairing of the NS and the UCS leads to an UCR. The conditioned stimulus (CS), which used to be the NS, will be associated with a response (CR). The CS really has no connection to the response but through the conditioning, the subject learns to associate their conditioned response with the CS."
Abstract The following discussion provides an analysis of the Classical Era, which represents much of the work of Beethoven, Mozart, and Haydn. The writer points out that these composers have withstood the test of time due to their valuable and significant contributions to the classical music genre, and their unique works continue to be enjoyed by individuals of all ages and cultures.
From the Paper "The role of classical music as a bona fide art form is of critical importance to the development of music as a means of true artistic expression. During one of the most formidable periods of classical music, which took place during the 1700s and 1800s, there was a reintroduction of traditional forms to the music genre, which provided a means of structure and symmetry that was not evident for some time. This period in music history provided a greater emphasis on simplicity, and it removed some of the emotional context that Baroque music was known for. This era is perhaps best known for the development of the following musical forms: symphonies, sonatas, and concertos, all of which provided enormous contributions to the period as a whole."
Abstract This essay critiques an experiment testing the use of classical music to improve the test scores of a number of spatial tasks. The paper describes the methodology of the experiment and discusses the findings, particularly that exposure to complexly-structured classical music leads to an improvement in abstract reasoning ability.
From the Paper "In the experiment studying music and spatial task performance, the purpose was to "demonstrate the correlation between music cognition and cognitions pertaining to abstract operations such as mathematical or spatial reasoning." The experimenter's findings were that: exposure to complexly-structured classical music leads to an improvement in abstract reasoning ability. According to the statistics, this hypothesis seems correct, but there are a number of aspects of the study which are in need of improvement. One weak area of the study is length of time the music was played for. In the study, the students listened to ten minutes of classical music, ten minutes of a relaxation tape, and ten minutes of silence, prior to performing standard IQ spatial reasoning tasks."
Abstract This paper looks at the details which characterize the musical romantic and classical periods. It begins with a look at the classical styles and its composers, and then moves to address the romantic style and its composers. It concludes that distinct differences in purpose, emotion, form, function and fusion of musical genres are apparent in the two.
From the Paper "Classical music ranged from about 1750 to 1820, at which point Romantic music became the current style, which itself lasted until around the year 1900. As one inevitably lead into the other, their characteristics perhaps can be best described when they are fully compared to one another. The classical style, as exemplified by its composers, was more fixated on form, design, balance and grace, while romantic style instead aimed at fusing together musical genres to capture the true, expressive spirit of the work, as likewise captured by the composers of this era. The classical period aimed backwards in history, attempting to recreate the classical period of the past in Grecian and Roman terms. Classical music, like many other periods, had variations of its styles. Beginning as a courtly style, which most likely was a remnant of the previous baroque period, it was intended to please the ..."
Abstract This paper examines the Christian Church from the medieval times to the classical period. It explores the European society formed by the Church beginning in the year 1100 A.D. The paper describes that the Church enabled social mobility, participation in government, the growth of literature, and territorial expansion through warfare. The paper demonstrates that the Church held centralized religious power in contrast to religion's role in the Greek and Roman society, where the state and its citizens ruled.
From the Paper "Religion has always been present in civilizations; however, its position and influence on societies has greatly differed. This difference is exemplified by contrasting the religious institutions of the classical world with the medieval period. By and large, the Greeks and Romans had no structured places of worship, leaving their mode of praise to the confines of their homes. By not having a centralized institution of worship, their religion did not have an organized power structure. As time progressed, the beliefs of the classical period faded and a new religion emerged, Christianity. The proliferation of Christianity throughout Europe in the waning of the classical world and the onset of the Middle Ages brought about the establishment of the Church. With the strong worldview of Christianity, the Church became a central entity and greatly contributed to the shaping of a new civilization that was very different from the classical period. The Church gave definition and direction to this era by providing social mobility, participation and perpetuation of government, the preservation and growth of literature, and espoused and justified expansion through warfare."
Tags: civilization, classical, middle, ages, period, western
Abstract This paper looks at how conclusions of the neo classical model of prices and markets are undermined by the existence of market failure and by the implied assumption that economic agents do not learn from experience.
Abstract Through an analysis of the music of eight Western classical composers, this paper attempts to understand how their various environments influenced their musical output. The eight composers that this paper studies are: Johann Sebastian Bach, Joseph Haydn, Richard Wagner, Peter Iljitch Tchaikovsky, Claude Debussy, Igor Stravinsky, Bela Bartok and George Crumb. The paper chooses to focus on specific compositions to demonstrate how each artist was affected by the events of his life -- from personal situations such as a family crisis, marriage or the loss of a loved one to broader social/cultural developments in his country or the world.
Outline:
Introduction
Johann Sebastian Bach
Joseph Haydn
Richard Wagner
Peter Iljitch Tchaikovsky
Claude Debussy
Igor Stravinsky
Bela Bartok
George Crumb
Conclusion
From the Paper "In Bach's Christ lag in Todesbanden (Church Cantata No. 4), written for Easter Sunday, the hymn melody and its verses are used exclusively throughout the piece. The opening measure, in the style of Buxtehude, Bach's mentor, is followed by seven verses, each having its own musical signature. In this opening measure, one can hear that the music is touched by the sorrows of death, but in the third verse, there is an outpouring of joy. This cantata was written in 1724 during a period in Bach's life that was full of musical expression. However, in 1720, his first wife, Maria Barbara died, and in 1721, Bach married Anna Magdalena Wuelken who bore him thirteen children. Thus, through the music of Cantata No. 4, Bach's sadness over the death of his first wife can be sensed; however, due to his strict religious upbringing, his joy can be sensed in the third verse which reflects his knowledge that his late wife is now with God in Heaven."
Abstract This paper attempts to show how the way in which Karl Marx broke from the analyses of the classical political economists is shown through the basic assumptions that he challenged. It identifies three key ways that form central points of departure from classical political economy. First, it examines how Marx's "historical materialist" approach departed from the classical economists, in the way that the mode of production was identified as the driving force behind social and historical change. It then looks at how Marx broke away from the classical conception of the market mechanism and then shows Marx broke away from the individualist assumptions of the classical political economists. It also explores how the premise that an understanding of economic life can be derived from conceptualising the individual as a fundamental unit of analysis was a central assumption of the classical school and how Marx asserted that economic life can only be understood through the analysis of social relations and in particular the relations between classes.
From the Paper "Markets, both Marx and the Classicals agreed, create a division of labour. In our day to day interactions, it is about exchanging goods for money. However, what Marx saw was a division of labour that is social, allocating people to different trades. In capitalism, labour is not directly social. It became social only when it appeared as the price of a commodity that was exchanged. The prices of commodities and the buying and selling of commodities at these prices constituted the indirect social relations of interdependent labourers. Thus, in capitalism the social interdependence of workers appeared, in the form of commodity prices, to be a set of relations among things (commodities) rather than a set of relations among workers. The Classical economists did not see that it is something that is produced, as they regarded commodities primarily as having use values."
Abstract This paper discusses the post classic period (1000-1521 A.D.), which was considered a time of the culmination of the rise and fall of major empires and civilizations. Classicism is the principle and style embodied in the literature and the art of ancient Rome. It examines how during the post classic period, civilizations began to evolve with their own art, literature and religion. It describes how the collapse of classicism was most apparent in Africa, Asia and Europe and explores the dramatic events that occurred in the Afro-Eurasian world afterwards. It also examines the collapse of old empires and what new structures replaced the old as well the impact of nomadic activity, expansion and integration on shaping the period of post classic development.
From the Paper "The major realignment that threatened post classic arrangements was colonialism. Colonialism threatened post classic arrangements because Europeans sought to colonize the land and make it their own. In addition the introduction of Europeans into these societies threatened the health of the civilizations because the Europeans brought foreign diseases to the America?s. As a consequence of colonialism and the expansion of the Spaniards into the land occupied by the aforementioned civilizations were threatened and eventually overtaken by foreigners. So then the post classic arrangements could not be sustained in the wake of European invasion."
Abstract This paper will explore the origins and manifestation of neo classicism in France in the period from 1760 to 1848. As will be seen, neo classicism exerted a profound influence not only on the art of France during this period, but also upon its culture and political theory. However, as will be seen, French neo classicism was significantly influenced by events that took place outside of France, such as the excavations at Pompeii and Herculaneum in Italy. While these discoveries contributed more to an interest in all things classical rather than to specific artistic or cultural occurrences in France at this time, they nonetheless suggest something of the transnational nature of the neo classicism movement.
Abstract This paper discusses the contention that pop music is tomorrow's classical music within the context of rock/classical music collaborations since the early 1950s. The paper makes the point that pop is as certainly the classical music of tomorrow as classical music is the spirit of rock today.
From the Paper "Long before the official birth of Rock and Roll, the incorporation of old classics into a new sound was a common practice among trendsetters and musical rebels alike. Classical music is certainly not the only genre of music to be reinvented in meaning and sound, but the choice of Classical pieces is a popular one because of the impact on listeners. Classical pieces are almost universally recognized as familiar to an audience, whether they are able to make a distinct identification of the piece, or if it is simply a vague sense of deja vu influenced by the historical music. "Thus even the early days of ragtime and vaudeville produced their own variations on the classics, though we have few recordings. From the 1920s through the 1940s, James Price Johnson, Jelly Roll Morton, and Fats Waller 'jazzed up' the classics, alongside the Big Band versions of Paul Whiteman, Duke Ellington, Harry James, Tommy Dorsey, Glenn Miller, Les Brown... Many composers of Broadway shows also appropriated classical melodies." (Duxberry, "Nexus...") Pre-Rock Classical interpretations did not stir nearly the amount of controversy that would be seen in later years. The fervent nature of Rock and the moral/political rebellion associated with the genre, perhaps coupled with the passionate dedication of Rock musicians that equals that of the greatest Classical virtuosos, has been fuel for the fires of disapproval."
Abstract This art study examines the classical influence that resides within the works of Donatello and Andrea Mantegna. By observing the sculptures of Donatello, one realizes how classical antiquity is represented through content and form in composition. Andrea Mantegna also uses this classical approach to Grecian antiquity within the various paintings this artist produces in the same time period as Donatello. In essence, both of these artist are comparable, since they observe the compositional classical qualities that were the norm of their times in artistic mediums. The paintings of Andrea Mantegna are examples of a return to classical antiquity found in ancient Greek culture. The painting "St. Sebastian" (c.1480) relies on composition that is at once Greek.
Abstract This paper discusses the causes and treatment of phobia from the perspective of classical conditioning. First, the author looks at the roots of classical conditioning and explains how people learn through this process. The next part of this paper then examines the role classical conditioning plays in how people develop their fears and phobias. In the conclusion, the effectiveness of various phobia therapies are analyzed. Particular emphasis is given to techniques such as flooding, counter-conditioning and other therapies that employ classical conditioning.
Outline:
Classical Conditioning
Conditioning Fear
Therapies to Phobia
From the Paper "However, today, many humans continue to experience fear, even when the emotion is clearly not warranted. Such irrational fears can elicit strong emotional and physical symptoms from people. When these intense and irrational fears cause unwarranted anxiety and interfere with his or her ability to enjoy life, a person is said to be suffering from phobia."
