Abstract This paper looks at the significance of both the male and the female body to the societies of Western Christendom during the Medieval period. It discusses the body through the various stages of youth, manhood and womanhood, old age and finally death. It examines the medieval understanding and view of natural biological processes such as menstruation. The paper examines the medieval view of the 'eastern' man and discusses the views of emissions of the body, such as the body's smell and noise, with particular attention being paid to laughter. It also looks at the way that bodies are dressed and the use of perfume.
From the Paper "The body was highly significant in the societies of western Christendom during the medieval period and was "central to the process of social classification according to categories of age, health, purity...which were regulated through constructed categories such as stigma and gender". However, whilst ecclesiastical influence was total over all aspects of the body and its behaviour, the enforcement of canonical law must not be overstated, due to the obvious difficulties in policing such infractions of laws on sex and nocturnal habits. The church was also not as morally rigid as has been assumed by many, and in fact during the medieval period in western Christendom, the church deemed that it was preferable to tolerate "behaviour that they disapproved of but that they perceived might meet some wider social need", with such behaviour including prostitution, some kinds of extra marital sex and other casual sexual liaisons."
An analysis of the First Crusade, which was the first global mobilization of a military force, as well as the first instance of combative regimes between two of the worlds largest religions.
Abstract This paper views certain extracts from eye witness accounts of the complexities of the march to and fall of Antioch and Jerusalem and its retainment as the Holy city as the birthplace of Christ and all Christendom in the First Crusade. With an aim of demonstrating the organizational change of the view of the people of the era and correct representation of the facts, two verbose quotations of authoritative figures who were present or involved in the Crusaders are included to aid enlightenment as to the situation from the eyes of observers.
From the Paper "Pope Urban II dealt with the concept of negating the commandment that "thy shalt not kill" in relation to what will come of those who fell on the battlefield fighting against the hoards of Moslems to retain Jerusalem. In a statement to the realm of Gaul he said: You have modestly expressed a desire to know whether those who have recently died in war, fighting in defence of the church of God and for the preservation of the Christian religion and of the state, or those who may in 'he future fall in the same cause, may obtain indulgence for their sins. We confidently reply that those who, out of love to the Christian religion, shall die in battle fighting bravely against pagans or unbelievers, shall receive eternal life. For the Lord has said through his prophet: "In whatever hour a sinner shall be converted, I will remember his sins no longer." By the intercession of St. Peter, who has the power of binding and loosing in heaven and on the earth, we absolve, as far as is permissible, all such and commend them by our prayers to the Lord."
Abstract The paper relates that for the first two centuries, chivalry continued to denote proficiency in the art of fighting on horseback and it was only later that this social role of the knights became a specific ideology and a code of honor. The paper then illustrates how the romance of "Sir Gawain and the Green Knight" is a symbol of the complex ideology that emerged during the Medieval Ages around the concept of knighthood. The paper also discusses how the crusades organized by Christendom against paganism relied on knights and on their extreme devotion and generosity. The paper therefore concludes that knighthood can be identified as an important part of the Middle Ages, with a complex ideology of its own but also with a determinate role in society.
From the Paper "Knighthood or chivalry has a very interesting and tumultuous history, which begins in feudalism and continues in the Medieval Age. In England, evidences of chivalry appear only after the Norman Conquest. In the beginning, the term "knighthood" was merely used to indicate the investment of arms of a young man after his training was over. For the first two centuries, chivalry continued to denote proficiency in the art of fighting on horseback. It is only later that this merely social role of the knights was rounded with a specific ideology, which soon become a code of honor. With the spread of Christendom, there appeared different orders of knights, each with their characteristic goals and ideals."
Abstract This paper discusses the historical background of the Spanish Inquisition of the 15th century. It specifically shows how the Inquisition was used to eradicate heresy and safeguard the unanimity of Christendom in Spain. It discusses the role of the Catholic Church and how the Inquisition was finally suppressed by Queen Isabella II 356 years after it was started.
Table of Contents:
Background
Origin and Aims
Conclusion
From the Paper "On Wednesday, March 15th, 1391 his harangue was particularly effective, and his audience was roused to a high pitch of frenzy. On its way from the church, a turbulent crowd, thirsting with zeal and greed, surged towards the Jewish quarter, which seemed to be in imminent danger of sack. The civil authorities were at last awakened to the necessity of stern measures. Seizing two of the most turbulent members of the mob, they had them flogged, turned them into martyrs overnight. After some further disturbances, order was outwardly restored: but the spirit of unrest still simmered and Martinez continued his unbridled invective from the pulpit. These seemingly unimportant disorders are to be traced some of the greatest tragedies in history - the darkest page in the dark record of the Jewish people, one of the saddest episodes in the history of human thought, and the ultimate decline of sprain from the high status to which her achievements and her genius entitled her - everything, in a word, which is associated with the term, "the Spanish Inquisition"."
Abstract This paper examines the impact that Martin Luther had on western Christendom. The paper first explains that, at the beginning of the sixteenth century, the church was clearly unstable and, because so, had lost the dedication and spirit among many individuals that resided in England, at that time. The paper then looks at how Martin Luther had a huge impact on England and how his approach to Christianity did not fit in with the traditional and moral teachings of the late medieval church. Thus, ultimately, Martin Luther separated himself from the church and destroyed the religious unity of western Christendom.
From the Paper "According to reporters, Luther posted his Ninety-Five Theses on the doors of the Castle Church in Wittenberg, Germany in October of 1517. When church officials had seemed to ignore Luther's call for reform, he then decided to circulate the papers throughout Germany in a continuation of defending his beliefs. The Ninety-Five Theses were quickly translated from Latin into German, printed, and widely copied; making the controversy one of the first in history to be aided by the printing press.6 Martin Luther's papers had been an extremely controversial issue for many years regarding Christianity and the Catholic Church. On June 15, 1520, the Pope had warned Luther to withdraw from his writings and take down his papers that were nailed to the Catholic Church doors or face the consequences of excommunication from his native country where he would be forced out to live somewhere elsewhere. Consequently, Luther refused and was then excommunicated on January 3, 1521. "
Abstract This paper provides an in depth history of the medieval Crusades, and reviews James Reston Jr.'s book on the "Crusades, Warriors of God: Richard the Lionheart and Saladin in the Third Crusade". The author discusses the brutal and savage events of the three Christian expeditions to the Holy Land between 1095 and 1192, and the two most famous leaders in the final campaign, Richard the Lionheart, monarch of England, and Saladin, the Moslem conqueror.
From the Paper "James Reston Jr's Warriors of God: Richard the Lionheart and Saladin in the Third Crusade presents the Crusades as he sees it. In the past the books that present the Crusades have managed to create a glamorous and romantic image of a war that caused destruction for years. The book relates events in a manner that we realize that the crusades were among the most destructive wars on earth. In the name of God and civilization, massive expeditions created havoc on earth. Three Christian expeditions to the Holy Land between 1095 and 1192, took place each of which was cruel to any person that stood between the crusaders and the recovery of their religious shrines from Islam - especially those in Jerusalem . Reston clearly states that there was nobility involved nor was there even a hint of romance. The Crusades were just a massive butchering of people regardless, of caste, creed or race."
Abstract This paper discusses that these are very important elements of Myth attached to the Judeo-Christian tradition, which are important to the development of Western civilization. The author points out that the last 2000 years are telescoped under a theme of Christendom. The paper concludes that , we see that older myths remain powerful.
Abstract This paper examines how during his reign, the medieval emperor Charlemagne came to dominate Europe and create an empire of a scale not seen since classical times. It looks at how he created a renaissance of learning, the arts and culture in Europe. It analyses how the empire was achieved through a number of important military victories and how after the death of Charlemagne it became quickly divided and fragmented. It puts forward the argument that his educational and cultural achievements were greater and more durable than his military and political achievements even though his educational and cultural achievements were often fundamentally dependent on or instrumental in his military and political coups.
From the Paper "Charlemagne instilled a great deal of importance in historical texts. He realised the importance of annals and other historical texts in creating a sense of history and of collective national identity. It was very important to build up texts of the history of the Carolingians as part of the empire's pursuit of legitimacy. An example of an historical text which had a clear political impact and related strongly to Charlemagne's military achievements was Paul the Deacon's "Hisotira Langobardorum". This was a history of Lombardy. According to Mckitterick this history was ?an active contribution to the shaping of Frankish and Lombard relations.? This work actively portrayed the Carolingians as natural heirs to Lombardy."
Abstract This paper provides an account of how Islam came into being and how it manifests itself in the lives of its adherents today. Contrasts are made with other belief systems with a focus on Christianity.
Outline
Muhammad's Calling
Revelation of the Qur"an
The Three Sources of Teaching and Guidance
Islamic Expansion
Muhammad's Death Leads to Division
The Five Pillars of Islam
The Teaching of Islam and Daily Conduct of Muslims
Soul, Resurrection, Paradise, and Hellfire
Monogamy or Polygamy"
Islam and Daily Life
Conflict With and Within Christendom
From the Paper "Muhammad's call to be a prophet took place when he was about 40 years of age. He had the custom of going alone to a nearby mountain cave, called Ghar Hira, for meditation, and he claimed that it was on one of these occasions that he received the call to be a prophet. Muslim tradition relates that while he was there, an angel, later identified as Gabriel, commanded him to recite in the name of Allah. Muhammad failed to respond, so the angel 'caught him forcefully and pressed him so hard that he could not bear it anymore.' Then the angel repeated the command. Again, Muhammad failed to react, so the angel 'choked him' again. This occurred three times before Muhammad started to recite what came to be viewed as the first of a series of revelations that constitute the Qur?an. Another tradition relates that divine inspiration was revealed to Muhammad like the ringing of a bell."
Abstract This paper explains the period in history, known as the Crusades, where Western European Christians led a series of wars against the Muslims in an effort to reclaim Jerusalem. The paper also explains that, while the term Crusades literally refers to the period when the Christians were fighting the Muslims over Jerusalem, it also has come to refer to the general efforts that Western European Christians led against non-Christian religions. The paper also describes the economic and social consequences of the crusades.
From the Paper "The most significant effect of the Crusades was economic (Origins pp). Italian cities prospered, replacing the Byzantines and Muslims as merchant-traders in the Mediterranean as trade passed through Italians to Western Europe at a substantial profit (Origins pp). This commercial power became the economic base for the Italian Renaissance and also encouraged Atlantic powers such as Spain and Portugal to seek trade routes to India and China (Origins pp). The efforts of such explorers as Vasco da Gama and Christopher Columbus, helped to initiate and expand most of the world to European trade dominance and colonization, as well as to shift the heart of commercial activity from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic (Origins pp)."
This paper reviews historian Carlo Ginzburg's book "The Cheese and the Worms: the Cosmos of a Sixteenth-Century Miller", which provides a rare view into the religious and philosophical beliefs of lower class Christendom during the sixteenth century.
Abstract This paper explains that, in Carlo Ginzburg's "The Cheese and the Worms: the Cosmos of a Sixteenth-Century Miller", the miller Menocchio, who was charged with heresy in Italy at the age of fifty-two, and then again fifteen years later, is a tale of class conflict and how the tension between the classes in the sixteenth century was influenced by the Protestant Reformation. The author points out that this period was a tumultuous time, both socially and religiously, because of the emergence in Europe of the middle class as illustrated by Menocchio's raise from the peasant tradition to become a moderately wealthy miller. The paper states that the case of Menocchio can be seen as a reaction to an oppressive ruling class, which was unique because of the new influence of literature on lower society and because it was one of the first times that a poor, self-taught individual dared to stand-up to the ecclesiastical order on the basis of logic.
From the Paper "Still, many people in Menocchio's social position were unable to read or write as well as he could. And certainly, very few people in his time, who were exposed to the writings in his library, reached the same conclusions he rested upon. Yet "this distinctiveness had very definite limits. As with language, culture offers to the individual a horizon of latent possibilities-a flexible and invisible cage in which he can exercise his own conditional liberty." (Ginzburg, xx). This too, is hard to deny-an individual may be considered uncommon within his culture, but it is difficult to separate him from his culture completely. So, although Menocchio held many unusual beliefs, these beliefs cannot be removed from the context they came out of. "
Abstract The writer of this paper defines the term Orientalism, which comes from the Latin word oriens, as the rising sun, which generally implies, 'the East.' This paper focuses on the culture, religion, art and history of Orientalism. This paper explores the European view of Islam throughout history. The writer explains that during the birth of Christianity and Islam there was a distinct difference between European Christian cultures and those of East and North Africa, which are detailed at length in this paper. During the Middle Ages the European Christians denounced the Islamic people as the enemies of Christendom, due to their lack of knowledge of Eastern culture. This paper discusses how the Enlightenment thinkers of the 18th century viewed the Eastern culture as being superior to that of the Christian west. This paper illustrates that Islamic societies were praised for their religious tolerance when compared with Christian west. This paper also delves into those who opposed the Orientalist culture, such as James Mill, who believed that Eastern civilizations were stagnant and corrupt and Karl Marx who believed that Eastern methods of production were static. Christian evangelists further maligned Eastern traditions as superstitious nonsense. This paper also examines the rich artistic history of the Oriental culture. Depictions of Islamic Moors were found in Medieval and Renaissance art, but it wasn't until the 19th century that Orientalism became recognized in the arts. This paper also details the outspoken views and opinions of political activist and author Edward Said.
Table of Contents:
Definition of Orientalism
History of Orientalism
Orientalism in the Arts
History of Orientalism in the Arts
Edward Said and Orientalism
References
From the Paper "Photography was still in its infancy and did not allow for the capture of the sunlight, the colors and the mood in which a painter could. With the iconoclastic nature of Islam, and the forbidding of the depiction of the prophet Muhammad, there was little representational art in Islam. Most of their artwork was centered on pattern and design. For this reason, the Muslim world had very little visual record of their history, including the people and the cities that existed prior to modern photography. Today, still, the best visual record of exotic cities like Cairo or Damascus, prior to the advent of modern photography, exists in 19th century paintings by Europeans and Americans. In the mid to late 19th century, painters from every country in Europe and from across the oceans in America, came to the East."
Abstract This paper primarily aims to clarify whether Jesus Christ did miracles out of his own divine nature or by the empowering of the Holy Spirit. It begins by describing how the Tri-unity or trinity works (one God, three persons) and discusses what that implies as far as their interrelations go. It specifically discusses whether the Father is superior to the Son and looks at the Gospels for proof.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
The Tri-unity, Perfect Fellowship Of Three Persons In One Essence.
The Eternal Trinity
The Trinity in the Plan of Redemption
Jesus Christ's Reliance On The Spirit During His Earthly Life.
The Indwelling of the Spirit in Christ
The Conception of Christ
The Baptism of Christ
The Anointing of Christ
The Miracles of Christ
The Death of Christ
The Resurrection of Christ
The Post-Resurrection/ Pre-Ascension ministry of Christ
After the Resurrection
Conclusion
From the Paper "Jesus Christ, the son of God came to earth with the purpose of redemption. He lived a sinless perfect life on this earth being fully God and fully man for about 33 years. His cooperation with the Holy Spirit is another aspect of the example and lifestyle he left for us to contemplate and practice."
"In Luke 4, Jesus Christ himself talks of his own anointing of the Spirit. While studying this passage, I realized that the ministry of the Holy Spirit in the life of Christ was deeper than what I expected and thus modified slightly the content of this paper. I have come to the conclusion that to understand Christ's reliance on the Holy Spirit, one must first have an enhanced knowledge and understanding of the triune Godhead, their separate persons and works. Needless to say, neither I nor any other finite mind could ever fathom all the things pertaining to the tri-unity (or trinity); nevertheless the things that God has revealed in his word are sufficient to acquire a better picture of the cooperation of the trinity in the work of Christ during the period of his humiliation (and more specifically between Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit ). It will also be very helpful in finding meaning for the believer in the example of our Lord."
This paper compares the writings of Marco Polo from the thirteenth century about travel in Eurasia with the accounts of the travels of sixteenth century missionary St. Francis Xavier in this area.
Abstract This paper explains that, in 1295, when famed explorer Marco Polo returned to Europe after twenty-five years spent traveling throughout Eastern Eurasia, the tales of magnificent wealth and flourishing societies he related forever altered the way that Europeans considered the lands beyond the borders of Christendom. The author also points out that, in 1543, St. Francis Xavier, a missionary from Portugal, traveled to India for the purpose of spreading the doctrine of the Catholic Church. The paper observes that the writings of Xavier present a clear tone of disdain and disgust. The paper then stresses that, while Marco Polo observed the cultures of China from the political and economic perspective of a merchant, St. Francis Xavier approached the people and cultures he met with a prejudicial, ethnocentric point of view.
From the Paper "The European world that Marco Polo left behind when he embarked upon his expedition to the East in the mid-thirteenth century was one characterized by an uneducated populous, economic subsistence, and religious and political disunity. It is perhaps because of this that he perceived the lands of the East with such reverence. Although China in the thirteenth century was a strikingly different place than Europe in this time, in his account of his experiences Polo speaks of the religious, economic, and political structures of the country with great awe and respect, rarely passing any prejudicial or negative judgment upon the institutions of the East."
Abstract This paper explains that the Reformation, as a great religious revolution in the Christian church, ended the ecclesiastical supremacy of the Pope in Western Christendom and resulted in the establishment of the Protestant churches. Of the social changes taking place during the 16th century, the author believes, that the reformation of the Catholic Church was without a doubt the most important because it showed people that they had freedom of religion. The paper describes Martin Luther and Henry VIII of England as the leaders in this demonstration of religious change, which continues today.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
Martin Luther
The Reformation
Humanism and Learning
Religion and Leadership
Social Changes: The Catholic Church
Changing History
From the Paper "Religion continues to change as well, as there have now been openly homosexual individuals accepted not only into churches but even into the ministry in some areas. Women stand at pulpits in many churches across the world while other churches do not even allow women to speak out or perform any of the scriptural readings that many churches have at their services. It is clear that, although individuals now have a choice other than Catholicism, there are often so many choices between various churches and denominations that it is difficult to determine which one is right in the sense of biblical ideals."
