From the Paper "A solid-liquid phase diagram was constructed for a naphthalene - diphenylamine system. The phase diagram was constructed using the procedure known as thermal analysis. Thermal analysis allows for the determination of phase boundaries. A graph of the phase boundaries was then plotted versus mole fraction of naphthalene. From the graph the eutectic composition of the system was determined to be 0.39 + 0.1 moles of naphthalene and 0.61 + 0.1 moles of diphenylamine. The ln of mole fractions of naphthalene were then plotted versus 1/Temperature and from these graphs the heat of fusion and melting temperature for Ha and Hb were determined to be 99.49 + 2.0 KJ/mol and 17.38 KJ/mol, respectively. The Ta and Tb were determined to be 29.0 + 2.0 oC and 81.4 + 2.0 oC, respectively."
Abstract This paper examines one particular chemical, dopamine, to determine its role in the regulation of mood, as well as its effects in cases of chemical imbalance. This paper is intended to provide a scientific look at the molecule. Several scientific tests are examined and cited. The author, in examining dopamine, also covers a wide variety of related topics, including alcohol and drug addiction.
From the Paper " Feeling well is important to everyone. Countless books, lectures, and small groups exist only to help people feel good about themselves. The state of happiness is controlled by many different factors, some that are external to an individual, and some that are internal. External factors would be any of those that occur outside of the individual, such as career related stress, status of relationships, and even the realization of some goal or accomplishment. Internally, or biologically, there are also many things that influence happiness and well-being. These biological factors can respond to external stimuli, or in the case of chemical imbalances, have configurations that are not controlled by any stimuli, but seem to act on their own. "
Tags: analyze, biology, chemistry, dopamine, medical, neurotransmitter, science, test
Abstract This paper deals with the disease anthrax and the bacterium that causes it. Included is information on history, tests, where it is found, how and who contracts it, symptoms, treatments, and uses as a biological weapon.
From the Paper "Since the events of September 11 shocked our nation we have become increasingly concerned with the possibility of further terrorist attacks. President Bush has already added a new member to his cabinet; Tom Ridge now serves as the Homeland Defense Secretary. Words such as anthrax and biological warfare, which are not usually seen unless you look for them, can now be found almost every time you turn on the television, pick up the newspaper or log-on to the internet. If you had taken a survey of Americans three months ago asking them "What is anthrax"? the most common response next to "I don"t know? would probably have been "Hey, isn"t that a rock band?? Now it can almost be considered a household word. Since September 25th several people in the United States have become infected with a disease called anthrax, some have even died, because of exposure to letters containing a white powder from an, as of yet, unknown mailer. When used as a biological weapon, anthrax posses a serious threat to people and the environment and therefore should not be used as such."
Abstract This essay contains the history of the pesticide DDT and it's uses within the environment. DTT is a harmful pesticide which has been detrimental to the environment, and has caused a decline in a variety of species. The author focuses specifically on the effects of the pesticide on the environment.
From the Paper " As earth's population grows so does the demand for food, and the use of pesticides has become essential in meeting this demand. The first important synthetic organic pesticide was a chlorinated hydrocarbon, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane or DDT. DDT was discovered in 1939 by Swiss chemist Paul M?eller. In its early days, DDT was a popular pesticide because it was toxic to a wide range of insect pests, yet it appeared to have low toxicity to mammals. DDT was also persistent, which meant the pesticide didn't break down rapidly in the environment and therefore did not need to be reapplied often and since DDT was insoluble it did not wash off by rain or other weather conditions. Although gradually throughout time it was discovered that many insects had developed resistance to DDT, and it was discovered that DDT did in fact pose to be harmful to the ecosystem. This discovery created wide public interest and made people aware that chemicals were polluting the environment. As a result DDT was banned for use in North America and other countries in the early 1970?s. Though pesticides, such as DDT, may decrease the number of insects, throughout history it has been proven that there is a detrimental effect upon the environment, animals and humans as a result."
Abstract This paper discusses the new emerging technology of cloning. The author looks at the scientific advantages and moral implications of this new phenomenon.
From the Paper "Only four years after scientists cloned a sheep in Scotland, the ability to clone human beings is about to make the transition from science fiction to science fact. In recent news, announcements have been made regarding both the advancement of technology to clone and the interests expressed by some to utilize this technology. One such case is of an American couple who lost their 10-month old child to complications during a minor operation. Instead of having another child, they wanted this child. The couple felt that "their little son's genotype deserved another chance" (Talbot 40). The couple, well financed with money from a malpractice settlement, enlisted a "science-loving religious sect" called the Raelians to take frozen cells from their deceased child and make every attempt to clone him (Talbot 40). The issue of cloning humans is possibly the greatest controversy ever, as it will have the farthest-reaching effects on the world well into the future and there is a clear divide in society when the issue of cloning arises. Many support its use, while others cringe at the thought. Cloning technology is a fascinating prospect with firm roots in medical science and a strong footing in controversy as well, and responsible use will further advance higher knowledge and health."
Abstract This paper digs deeply into how aspirin and salbutamol were developed and also how they interact in the body from a heavy chemical and neurological perspective. It also gives a detailed overview into how, in general, pharmacueticals are developed using bronchodilars as an example. Also included are numerous diagrams in order to aid the reader comprehend the text.
From the Paper "Since 400BC physicians prescribed a bitter powder extract from the willow bark tree to alleviate pain. In the middle of the 18th century two chemists by the name of Fontana and Brugnatelli extracted the active agent Salicin from the willow, and was then converted by Piria into Salicylic acid. Felix Hoffman a German chemist set about trying to synthesise salicylic acid."
Abstract The following paper discusses Friedrich Kekule's interest in chemistry and examines how he came to be the originator of the structure theory for his study on chemical bonds. However this paper also examines how Kekule's formula for the structure of benzene was wrong. This paper provides the reader with the correct formula and explains what Kekulu's formula was missing.
From the Paper ?The charred body of a woman is found and the trial began. Friedrich Kekule testified before the grand jury. Many believed her death was caused by combustion from overdrinking of alcohol. However, Justus von Liebig and Kekule believed otherwise. This testimony incriminated a servant who had stolen from the woman. This began the turning point in Kekule's life as he pursued his new interest of chemistry and the beginning formula of benzene (Lienhard 1).
"Friedrich August Kekule has been said to be the originator of the structure theory and for his study on chemical bonds. Kekule was born on September 7, 1829 in Germany. Kekule attended school at Darmstadt. He was intelligent and spoke French, Italian, and English. Kekule in 1847 attended the University of Giessen and studied architecture (Ulearntoday 1)?
From the Paper "The purpose of this research is to examine the origins and development of alchemy, from the earliest stages of its practice and through the transitions it made from being a pseudo-science toward becoming a major foundation of the harder science of chemistry. As appropriate, reference will be made to those features of alchemy that appear to have survived the transition and continued to exercise an influence on the environment of scientific research.
The origins of alchemy can be traced as far back as the Greeks and the Hellenistic period, if the historiography of the scientific community is to be taken as a guide. It seems important to include Aristotle in any understanding of the reach of alchemy for the reason that the residue of philosophical and scientific environment of intellectual discipline attributed to..."
Abstract This paper discusses Alumina or Aluminum Oxide, the only oxide formed by the metal aluminum, which occurs in nature as the minerals corundum, diaspore, gibbsite and most commonly as bauxite, which is an impure form of gibbsite. The author submits that its industrial and commercial use in the modern times took off after the development of the Bayer process, which made possible the wide-scale, low cost production of the material.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Background Information: History of Alumina
Initial Manufacture of Alumina
Manufacture of Aluminum & the Bayer Process
New Natural Forms of Alumina
Properties of Alumina
Mechanical Properties
Thermal Properties
Electrical Properties
Structure of Crystalline Alumina
Alumina (Aluminum Oxide) Structure
Structure of Liquid Alumina
Applications of Alumina
Ceramics
As an Insulating Material
Electronics
Mechanical Ceramics
Military Uses
Bio Medical
Chemical Ceramics
Enameling
Refractory Uses
Chemical Industry
Catalysts, Fillers, and the Glass industry
The Bayer Process
Grinding of Bauxite
Digestion of Bauxite
Settling and washing of Residues
Crystallization of Hydrates
Calcination of Hydrate
Conclusion
From the Paper "Fused alumina (the substance produced after being melted and re-crystallized) is identical in chemical and physical properties with natural corundum. It is a very hard material and its hardness is exceeded only by diamond and a few synthetic substances such as carborundum, and silicon carbide. This property of alumina lends itself for use as an abrasive material. Another useful property of the material is its high melting point, i.e., above 2000?C (3632?F), which makes it useful as a refractory and as linings of special furnaces. The mechanical, chemical, and electrical properties of Alumina (99.7% purity) often used in the ceramic industry are depicted in the following tables:..."
Abstract This paper provides a thorough overview of the art of aromatherapy. It begins by providing a history of aromatherapy and then explains how the practice works. It answers questions by sceptics about whether it does work or not. It explains the purpose and powers of some of the oils and how each power was discovered.
From the Paper "Aromatherapy is a compound word. The two parts are: Aroma~ meaning Fragrance ort smell and Therapy~ meaning treatment, therefore aromatherapy is the process of caring for the body using smell. Aromatherapy is used for the use of pain, anxiety and fatigue. It is also used to prevent illness, to care for the skin and to enhance relaxation. It is a holistic treatment in which the oils are massaged into the skin, used in baths, directly applied to the skin and/or inhalation. When inhaled the oils affect the brain and nervous system through a stimulation of the olfactory nerves. When used in baths or massage the oils are absorbed into the skin and are carried off by body fluids and then transferred into the main body system. Certain essential oils may have different effects of different parts of the body. Aromatherapy is now one of the largest growing alternatives to chemical medicine. It is widely used in homes, hospitals and clinics such as pain relief."
Abstract This paper begins by giving a scientific content breakdown of cadmium, explaining what it looks like and what its uses are. It discusses where the risks exist where one could get cadmium poisoning and what areas are exposed to such an agent. It also looks at toxicological concerns which are the health problems which could occur when exposed to cadmium over a long period of time. It concludes with suggestions for exposure control.
OUTLINE
Introduction
Cadmium poisoning on the Increase
Description of Cadmium
General Concerns about Toxicity
Exposures
Underground Mineral
Water
Airborne
Food
Industrial
Toxicological Concerns
Renal Dysfunction
Immunosuppressant Problems
Emphysema
Anemia
Role in Cancer, Hypertension and Heart and Kidney Disease.
Exposure Control
Safe Levels
Exposure Reduction
From the Paper "Cadmium poisoning was chosen as a topic because it is a threat that can be avoided and because it is not a well-known source of poisoning. Better knowledge of the issue would help reduce incidence. Cadmium, the name for which was derived from the Greek kadmeia, is a zinc ore that resembles tin. It is a metallic blueish white element with the atomic number 48 and the atomic weight of 112.40. Cadmium has many uses in industry. At one time, Cadmium was included in medications, but these have since been replaced by less toxic drugs. A recurrent problem is cadmium poisoning, brought about through the inhalation of cadmium in fumes created by welding, smelting, or other industrial processes involving solder. Cadmium bromide is used in engraving, lithography, and photography and can cause severe gastrointestinal symptoms if swallowed. Cadmium poisoning may also be caused by the ingestion of acidic foods prepared and stored in cadmium-lined containers, such as lemonade in certain metal cans."
Abstract This paper explores the chemical structure and clinical uses of technetium-based radio-pharmaceuticals which have since the 1970s, served as the mainstay for every hospital's nuclear medicine department. Today, fully 85% of all diagnostic scans in American hospitals use 99mTc in some chemical form. It includes a brief overview of several "technetium-essential" and "technetium-tagged" radio-pharmaceuticals, as well as a discussion of current areas of research and development for new technetium drugs.
From the Paper "Technetium-99m has several physical properties that make it ideal for use in nuclear medicine. Foremost among these is that Tc-99m generally emits only gamma rays. These gamma ray photons are of a high enough energy (140,000 eV) that they can easily pass through dense tissue and exit the body, but can be effectively stopped and detected by a special gamma camera. Other radionuclides generate alpha and/or beta particles, which are diagnostically useless since they lack the penetrating ability to exit the human body. Worse, the ionizing ability of these decay products can damage tissue."
Abstract This paper explains that how this acid is made and the hazards of using it. The author explains its industrial use, common use and medical use. The paper includes the chemical formula molarity and how it is used and reacts.
Abstract Man needs to understand the laws that govern various chemical processes because this is the only way he can gain power over them and use them to the advantage of mankind. Various chemical discoveries have thus played a very important role in our lives and this paper explains how chemistry turned from a primitive science into one of the its most sophisticated branch and how human beings can benefit from it.
Abstract This essay talks about the biochemical nature of the enzyme lactase. The paper includes a discussion of it's production, the reaction it catalyzes and the physiological effects of this enzyme. In particular the essay includes an explanation of the physiological effects experienced with a deficiency of lactase.
From the Paper "Lactose is a disaccharide that is the principal carbohydrate found in milk and other dairy products. To digest lactose the enzyme lactase is required to catalyse the hydrolysis reaction to produce the monosaccharides glucose and galactose. This enzyme is usually present at birth but often decreases in activity as the child matures. The condition where an individual has a deficiency of lactase is known as lactose intolerance and produces symptoms such as nausea, cramps, bloating, gas, and diarrhea"
