From the Paper "Gas chromatography is a method for the separation and analysis of complex mixtures of volatile organic and inorganic compounds (1:666). Most compounds with boiling points less than 250oC (480oF) can be analyzed using this technique. This paper will describe the apparatus used for gas chromatography, the principles on which it works, how a thermal conductivity detector works in gas chromatography, and whether or not it can be used with a sample of potassium t-butoxide.
General Principles of Gas Chromatography
There are two types of gas chromatography: gas-liquid chromatography, where the sorbent is a nonvolatile liquid called the stationary liquid phase, coated as a thin layer on an inert, granular solid support; and gas-solid chromatography, where the sorbent is a granular solid of large surface area (1:666). The..."
Abstract Technical discussion of toxic properties of various weapons. Purpose of producing physiological or physical effects on enemy forces. Modern origin in use of mustard gas in World War I. Describes blistering agents (vesicants), nerve gas, VX, Soman, B2, toxins and allergens. Treaties to prevent use of chemical weapons. The Geneva Protocol of 1925 and the Chemical Weapons Convention of 1993.
From the Paper "Chemical weapons use the toxic properties of chemicals to produce physical or physiological effects, usually on enemy forces during wars (FAS-Introduction, 2001). Although they have been used throughout history, chemical weapons are thought of as originating during World War I with the use of mustard gas by both sides. In 1925, the Geneva Protocol was signed which prohibited the use of chemical weapons in warfare, but several nations who signed the pact, including the United States, did so with the proviso that they reserved the right to retaliate in kind if chemical weapons were used against them. Neither side used chemical weapons during World War II. Common agents in use are: the blood agents arsine, cyanogen chloride and hydrogen chloride; the choking agents chlorine, diphosgene, PFIB and phosgene; nerve agents GA (tabun), GB (sarin), GD (soman), GE, GF, V..."
Abstract In this report the writer explains chemical warfare and list the types of agents which can be used. It describes how a person is affected and the great potential hazards and dangers. The writer provides an overview of historical cases when chemical warfare has been used and explains how it's transmitted. The paper gives specific examples of certain types, and lastly, looks at how a person can be protected from chemical warfare.
From the Paper "On April 22 in 1915, six thousand pressurized cylinders full of chlorine gas were released into the wind near the Belgian village of Ypres. The chlorine floated in huge clouds slowly being carried by the wind until it reached an ally army to Germany, then killing 10,000 soldiers. Because of the amount of gas released the chlorine caused large amounts of yellowish fluid to form in the lungs of the soldiers causing them to choke to death. Germany attacked again another two days later killing another 5,000 soldiers with chlorine gas. This was the first chemical weapon attack in history and chlorine was the first chemical agent. Since then there have been a handful more times when chemicals have been used to attack other people and with the terrorist attacks on 9-11 Americans know the fear of chemicals being used against us. In this report I will explain chemical warfare, list the types, describe how a person is affected, explain when they’ve been used, explain how it’s transmitted, give specific examples of certain types, and lastly, how a person is protected from chemical warfare."
Abstract The paper begins by purifying beef heart and ends with a highly-quantitative analysis of the results of attempting to isolate the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase. It contains every aspect of a detailed biochemistry lab report. The paper contains complex quantitative analysis with supporting statistics. It also has scanned photographs of the gel electrophoresis.
From the Paper "Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) is a crucial enzyme that regulates lactate levels throughout the mammalian body. Proper LDH function is essential for a number of important biochemical pathways, including the Cori Cycle and glycolysis among others. Without it, the glycolytic cycle would come to a halt due to diminished nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) reserves, and the buildup of lactate would ultimately result in lactic acidosis-a potentially fatal affliction."
Abstract This paper discusses the elements uses, abundance, discovery, atomic mass and characteristics of potassium, as well as some common forms and how the body uses it.
Abstract The objective of this experiment was to determine the adsorption of various acetic acid solutions onto charcoal. This experiment obeyed the Langmuir isotherm because the plot of C/N versus C proved to be linear. This shows that the adsorption equilibrium is essentially ideal and there is a definite set of sites of adsorption.
Abstract An analysis of the writings of psychologist John C. Searle and his philosophy of the mind. Includes a deep probing into the mind-body debate and an analysis of Searle's concepts and ideas.
From the Paper "Searle's answer to the mind-body problem is a radical adjustment in how we view mental and physical phenomena in regards to the philosophy of the mind. In fact, his solution demands a complete shift in the language we use to approach the mind-body problem. Searle asserts that we must no longer partition phenomena into either the mental and the physical. What we observe as mental phenomena are actually higher-level views of physical events taking place in the brain and perhaps the central nervous system. The workings of the brain do not exist in two separate domains that are related by rules, programs, or processing of information. To even consider one big all-inclusive domain would be wrong. Searle's whole point is to discard the language we have used to describe the workings of the brain. Our language reflects our approach towards the problem, and by using the terms "mental" and "physical" we unnecessarily compartmentalize the observations we make about the mind. A philosophy of the mind does not need to incorporate a mysterious mental component that is seemingly detached from the physical."
Abstract This paper explains how a nuclear reactor produces energy. The paper includes a discussion of fission, radioactivity, types of reactors and how they produce electricity.
From the Paper "All modern nuclear reactors operate on the principal of nuclear fission. Nuclear fission is a process in which the nucleus of an atom is split when it absorbs a free neutron after a collision occurs between the atom and the neutron. Splitting the nucleus of the atom releases large amounts of nuclear energy contained within the nucleus. Once the nucleus of the atom is split, multiple neutrons are released which are used to split nuclei of other atoms, causing what is known as a chain reaction. The chain reaction will continue as long as an average of one neutron per fission is absorbed by a nucleus. By harnessing and manipulating the energy that is released, other types of energy can be obtained. The power developed by nuclear fission has been used by man to create, as in the driving of an electric generator and for propulsion, as well as destroy, as in the release of atomic explosion. Whereas the fission in a nuclear reactor is precisely controlled to prevent a nuclear meltdown, the fission in an atomic explosion is not controlled and the shock wave produced by the splitting atom and its resulting chain reaction is equal to several thousand tons of TNT."
Abstract This paper is an in-depth examination of the periodic table. The author begins with some background on atomic knowledge, and then looks at the ancient Greek scholars who influenced the early table. Early atomic theory, and the discovery of distinct weights are discussed in detail. The author pays specific attention to Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev, whose scientific work in the late 1880s provided the breakthrough in the construction of this table and remains the basis for the model used today.
From the Paper "Mendeleev completed the table in 1869, when 63 known elements existed. As Mendeleev said, ?if all the elements can be arranged in order of their atomic weights a periodic repetition of properties is obtained.? (Leichester, 1965) Mendeleev arranged the elements according to weight, and then proceeded to group them into clusters of elements that possessed similar properties. These groupings, together with the consideration of variance from strict atomic weight order, left spaces in the table that Mendeleev predicted would encompass elements that had not yet been discovered. Mendeleev left these spaces open in order to accommodate future discoveries. He himself accurately predicted three of these missing elements- Scandium (ekaboron), galluim (ekaaluminum), and germanium (ekasilicon). By 1886, only seventeen years after the creation of the table, all of the elements previously predicted by Mendeleev had been isolated."
Abstract This paper examines all things related to the atomic element titanium. The author describes its properties, color, appearance, from where it can be mined and the discovery of the element. The paper also discusses commercial extraction and the various uses for titanium.
From the Paper "Titanium is not commonly used because it is among the most difficult of all metals to obtain in pure form. It has high reactivity with carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen at high temperatures, which means that it cannot be extracted from its ores using the types of process commonly used for other metals. Although titanium compounds have been known since 1795, it was not until 1910 that the New Zealand-born metallurgist Matthew Hunter, working in the United States, produced the first pure sample of the metal."
Abstract This paper details a brief history of boron composites from its earliest applications to recent developments. It studies the application of boron in composite epoxies and fibers and the use of these materials in airframe manufacturing. It includes figures showing usage of Boron composite. It concludes that boron has been very successful in aircraft manufacturing if the costs can be brought down.
From the Paper "Compounds of boron, most notably from unfinished borax ore, known as Tincal, were exported from Tibet in olden times. Historically, boron has been used for refining gold and silver in Arabia, ceramic glazes in China, and embalming in Egypt.
"Boric acid, a mild antiseptic, was isolated in the laboratory by chemistry professor William Homberg in 1720. Sir Humphrey Davy, a British chemist, and two French chemists, Joseph Gay-Lussac and Baron Louis Th?nard, discovered the element, boron, in 1808 concurrently. However, it took another 155 years before science turned its focus from borax to boron, and began to reveal the secrets of this mysterious and valuable element."
Abstract The effects of alochol abuse on the unborn child, on society and on relationships are quite wellknown, but the fact that alcohol can affect the brain is a fact that is less known. The paper shows that in fact alcohol stops the cortex from serving its role in integrating cognitive processes, resulting in disorganized thinking and motor control difficulties. The paper examines research that shows that individuals with a history of chronic alcohol abuse had significantly smaller brains than non alcoholic individuals. Finally, the paper concludes that continuous research on the subject may help combat alcoholism in the future.
From the Paper "The actions of several neurotransmitters are significantly affected by the actions of alcohol. Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is one of the most prevalent neurotransmitters in the human brain, and alcohol is clearly linked to affects on the GABAergic system in the human brain. For example, the symptoms of alcohol withdrawal are reduced by blocking the activity of the neurotransmitter by the use of drugs that are well known to block GABA receptors. This evidence suggests that alcohol may play an important role in the biological underpinnings of human alcoholism. Researchers have also noted that tolerance and dependence on alcohol can be explained by the neuropharmacological effect of chronic alcohol use (Brain & Mind Magazine)."
Abstract This paper examines the dangers of the notorious chemical DDT and shows why it should be banned by the year 2007, as environmentalist groups have aimed to do. The paper covers issues relating to the chemical including a growing resistance to its use, effective alternatives and the extent of its environmental destruction.
From the Paper "The environmental damage that DDT causes is enough in itself to justify a total ban. DDT is a very persistent chemical and because if its molecular structure breaks down very slowly within nature. There are rough estimates that the half-life of DDT is around 12-15 years depending on the climate it is exposed to. This is partly why it is so dangerous in the environment. Another factor is that DDT is able to travel great distances, and is found every where throughout the globe. This is a strange and disturbing discovery because some places have never been sprayed before, such as Antarctica and the ocean bottoms. The spraying of DDT has unintentionally killed some main predators of the mosquito. Dragonfly larva hunt mosquito larva in puddles and stagnant ponds and also the adult dragonfly will hunt adult mosquitoes further reducing their numbers. DDT has worked in the past but as it destroyed fragile ecosystems it has now increased mosquito numbers. DDT is also the linked chemical responsible for the decline in the population of the Bald eagle and the Peregrine falcon. These two species are at the top of the food chain, thus their prey usually have been exposed to DDT."
Abstract This paper looks at the muscle building synthetic hormone called androstenedione or androstenediol, also nicknamed "andro" which became the first in a list of performance-enhancing substances called pro-hormones. It is called a pro-hormone because it is a precursor to testosterone and metabolizes directly into testosterone and is commonly used by athletes. It analyzes the so called beneficial effects which make "andro" attractive to males of different persuasions with (mostly) cosmetic, non life threatening problems and how research has shown that the negative effects far outweigh the potential benefits. It looks at how aggressive behavior, mood swings and bad moods are commonly reported side effects of androstenedione as well as hair loss, blurred vision, acne, enlarged breasts, shrunken testicles and rarely, liver cancer.
From the Paper "Androstenedione is also naturally produced by the adrenal gland in humans. Androstenedione was first synthesized in 1935. (Ruzicka and Wettstein, 1935) In 1936, world expert on steroid hormones, Dr. Charles Kochakian, was the first to show that androstenedione produced both androgenic and anabolic effects. But the anabolic effects were significant only in castrated dogs, and even then were much weaker than effects of testosterone. (Kochakian and Murlin, 1936) Its variants are commonly found in the pollen of Scotch pine trees. Androstenedione, when taken orally, will increase blood levels of both Androstenedione and testosterone. According to the German patent given for Androstenedione, 50mg given orally to men raised plasma testosterone levels up to 20 per cent; 100mg raised levels higher than 35 per cent. Blood levels start rising about 15 minutes after oral administration and stay elevated for around three hours."
Abstract The writer explains that in this experiment, lysozyme was purified from egg white solution into 24 fractions using gel column chromatography. The writer points out that the odd-numbered fractions were then assayed in order to determine the enzymatic activity of lysozyme, while the even-numbered fractions were assayed for total protein content, using the Bradford protein assay procedure. The writer notes that lysozyme is one of the most well-known enzymes, being abundant in mucus, tears, and albumen (commonly known as egg white).
The writer concludes that the purification of lysozyme from egg white was only somewhat successful since the estimated value of the molecular weight, 14.25 kDa, is practically the same as the known weight of 14.3 kDa. However, the specific activity, calculated at 400 units/mg, was significantly less than the expected specific activity of 25 000 units/mg of protein.
Outline:
Abstract
Introduction
Materials and Methods
Results
Calculations
Discussion
Conclusion
From the Paper "Lysozyme is itself composed of 129 amino acids, including four disulfide bridges and three sets of alpha helices. The enzyme's active site consists of a long groove that can hold as many as six polysaccharides. According to past experiments, specific activity of lysozyme from egg white is approximately 25 000 units/mg. This is the expected result for this experiment. However, one factor that influences the specific activity is the actual column and type of chromatography being used, since accuracy differs among the different types of chromatographies. Therefore, some are able to purify enzymes better than others, giving a more accurate specific activity. In addition to obtaining the specific activity, molecular weight of the enzyme can be determined by comparing the fraction in which most of the enzyme eluted with the fractionation range."
