Abstract The paper explains how the Celts had an influence on the history of Ireland. The paper discusses early Irish mythic sources and the Celts. The paper includes various legends that explain the migration of Celts to Ireland, including their rich oral and musical tradition. The paper also incorporates the domination of the Gaelic identity in Ireland.
From the Paper "Ireland has been formally identified with Celts since the ?th century though Celts influenced Irish history before then. Julius Caesar's commentaries divide Gaul, not the British Isles into three ethnic regions, by no means culturally or linguistically identical; Celtae, Aquitani and Belgae Rankin, placing them on the Continent. Early Irish mythic sources, partly taking their cue from classical descriptions of the Celts as Scoti, identified themselves with Scythians who flourished in ancient Asia Minor."
This paper discusses humor in early anonymous medieval English poetry: "The Dream of the Holy Rood", "Beowulf" and "The Wanderer" and later pieces "The Canterbury Tales", "Sir Gawain and the Green Knight" and "Everyman".
Abstract This paper explains that, on first reading, early medieval English poetry seems so deadly serious but, by look at some of the exaggeration in this poetry, even "Beowulf" and the "Wanderer" could be considered funny. The author points out that the bards of the Celts and Druids had a tradition of humor in which musicians and storytellers poked fun at people and situations. The paper relates in detail examples of humor in each poem such as "Sir Gawain and the Green Knight", which the paper states is "a positively outrageous story".
From the Paper "When the reader gets into the poem ["Beowulf"] itself, it seems the ideas are ponderous and so is the language. How men who spent all night drinking could continuously be, or at least be portrayed, in such pompous, overblown terms, doesn't make sense. Mead is a powerfully alcoholic drink and ale is what it is. How could these men drink themselves to sleep every night and still function at all? Is it just the modern mindset that is so foreign to this kind of writing or is the sense of someone poking fun at this "warrior class" that apparently thought very highly of itself and its values, an accurate perception? The rigid, almost comically so, codes of honor the peoples of this poem lived by almost defy logic. The aggrandizement of people whose best skills are killing other people leaves something to be desired."
Tags: exaggeration, codes, poking, celts, christian
Abstract This paper examines how the Celtic culture is one of Europe's oldest, surviving for thousands of years through several foreign invasions and through settlement in some of Europe's most inhospitable regions. It looks at how even today, Celtic culture thrives in pockets of Wales, Scotland and Ireland, where people continue to speak Celtic-based languages such as Gaelic and Welsh, and honor the free-spirited warrior history of the Celts. Because of the longevity of the Celtic culture, this paper attempts to determine whether it can be considered the most influential culture in European history.
Outline:
The Influence of the Celts Arguments Against the Celts The Celts Were not Europe's Most Influential Culture
From the Paper "There is an argument to be made that the Celts are one of the most resilient cultures in European history. Celtic history stretches back as far as 1,200 B.C., and the Celts, who were essentially a group of loosely affiliated tribes who spoke similar languages and practiced similar customs, once saw their territory stretch from the rocky Atlantic cliffs of Ireland and England to the Black Sea in Eastern Europe (O'Neill). It was a territory one might more readily associate with the Roman Empire, which certainly had a significant influence over European history and development. "
Abstract This paper examines in brief the history of this monumental stone circle, its construction and the myths that have grown up around it especially during the 20th century. The paper concludes that the monument remains so compelling in large measure because we know so little about it.
From the Paper "Stonehenge, a monumental circular setting of large standing stones surrounded by a circular earthwork, was constructed in several phases about eight miles north of Salisbury in Wiltshire, England. It was begun as long as 5000 years ago with the outer bank, the ditch, and the Aubrey holes encircling the main construction dating from probably the late Stone Age or early Bronze Age (circa 2000BC). The main structure dates from between the early Bronze Age and the end of the Iron Age. The sarsen - or sandstone - stones date from the about 1500BC (Chippindale 18)."
Abstract This paper first examines the history of England itself. It then discusses how, in the year 1688, King James II was forcibly removed from power and replaced by William of Orange. James II was a Catholic and determined to reinstate Catholicism in England. It explains that, after the birth of James's son and heir, a party of elder statesmen officially invited William of Orange, a Protestant, to come to England with a conquering army to save the kingdom from the Catholic rule of James II. This was known as the Glorious Revolution. The writer then explains how, by the time of the Glorious Revolution, the English military had progressed from its medieval roots into the modern age. It discusses how the castles and knights of the Middle Ages gave way to muskets and rifles, the seas were controlled by massive ships brimming with heavy cannon, and the feudal society of the nobles? private armies had transformed into a centralized, government-controlled military. It points out that these changes would lay the foundation for future expansion and empire-building on the part of the British.
From the Paper "Though everyone has heard of the Viking invasions, a facile idea is current among modern historians that after 1066 England was in some sense invasion-proof because it was surrounded by sea. Nothing could be further from the truth. In fact, the sea is no safeguard at all to those who are not capable of using it for their own defense. For much of the Middle Ages both French and Scots rulers showed a better appreciation of the tactical and strategic use of naval power than their English counterparts. Far from being invasion-proof, English governments were overthrown as a result of overseas invasion on eight occasions between 1066 and 1500 and faced at least seven other successful landings by major forces."
Abstract This paper explains that Christian art, evolving along with the church, began in the Near East, which was a vast religious and cultural melting pot where all the competing faiths, including Judaism, Christianity, Gnosticism and many others, tended to influence each other. The author points out that the oldest sizeable and coherent body of Christian art, which can be traced to no earlier than 200 AD, is the painted murals in the Roman catacombs and the underground burial places of the Christians. The paper relates that the halo around Jesus' head stems from pagan artists, who used a halo, usually of a gold color, to mark the chief of men and women in their pictures, and from the Romans, who associated it with the cult of light as a special gift from God. Chart. List of illustrations but no illustrations.
Table of Contents
The Early Christian Church - The Jews and the Greeks
Byzantine Art
The Christian Empire
Nuns, Monks, and Priests
Saints and Martyrs
The Virgin Mary
The Halo
The Conversion of the Northern Tribes
The Celts The English
The Saxons
The Holy Roman Emperor
East Rome
Church of St. Sophia
The Icons, the Iconostasis, and Iconoclasm
Icons
Iconostasis
Iconoclasm
The Mystics
The Effect of Islam
A Comparison of Christianity East and West
Early Christian vs. Byzantine Art
Western Society in the Middle Ages
Popes
Society and Religion
Hell and Purgatory
Gothic Cathedrals and Stain Glass Windows
The Renaissance
Exploration
The Reformation
The Modern Age
From the Paper "The first celibates in the early Christian church were women who lived lives of chastity and cleaned church buildings. These women also helped tend the sick. Many spiritually oriented celibate males started as hermits but eventually these men grouped together, elected an abbot, and agreed to abide by a set of rules. These first nuns and monks were called Benedictines. Priests were allowed to marry in the early church but the idea of a celibate priesthood was raised as early as 324 AD (Council of Nicene) but this was unenforceable. In the early church, a man could marry before he became a priest and still become a priest. He could not marry if he became a priest before marrying. The ideal of the totally celibate priesthood was not enforceable until the 11th Century. A man who wanted to become a bishop was not allowed to be married.
In the Eastern Orthodox Catholic Church, priests still are allowed to marry before taking final vows."
Abstract This in-depth paper details the rituals, literature, importance of mythology and rich history surrounding the ancient Celtic nature worshipping religion of Wicca (witchcraft). The Celts were pantheistic, meaning they saw the spirit world in all things and believed herbs, trees, animals and rocks represented different aspects of their gods and goddesses. A common Wiccan belief is that all gods are one God, all goddesses are one Goddess and both are united. This paper compares Wicca to Catholicism and explains which Celtic holidays and traditions were adopted by the Catholic church, albeit many of the reasons for this have since been forgotten. This paper discusses how Pagan followers are once again using the ancient Wiccan holidays and rituals as a means to renew their connection to the Mother Goddess in all Her forms, in a religion which views all things equally.
Table of Contents:
Patterns of Ritual
The Metaphor
The Sacrificial God
The Twin Gods
The Sabbats
Yule
Vernal Equinox
References
From the Paper "Most Wiccans also follow the eight sabbats of the year. These are the Wiccan holidays, marking the points of the greatest solar and lunar energy. The four greater sabbats mark the lunar peaks while the four lesser sabbats mark the solar peaks. During these festivals, sacred rites, blessings and divinations were performed. The sacred rites included fertility rites, engagements and marriages (trial marriages and handfastings), rites of passage and simulated deaths. Magical items and altars were blessed, as well as people, animals, homes, cities, fields and seeds. Divinations were done through scryes (reflective objects), fire, water or visions (dreams and meditations). Each holiday had its specific rites, blessing and divinations. Today, Wiccans still adhere to the specific ideas of the ancient holidays."
Abstract This paper discusses the ancient roots of Nordic Aryans in Europe, including why they perceive themselves to be a pure race. It expands on the entrance of IndoEuropeans to Europe. The author explores why the Nordic Aryans are considered a race.
Abstract This paper discusses the various sources on which Sir Thomas Mallory drew to create the version of the legend of King Arthur that is known today. The writer provides an overview of the historical background for the Arthurian legend and the evidence that exists for a historical Arthur. The writer explains the medieval traditions of courtly love and of chivalry that Mallory incorporated into his book and his legacy of the knightly ideal that was detailed by Chaucer in his "Canterbury Tales," and in the fourteenth-century poem "Sir Gawain and the Green Knight."
From the Paper "The account that did the most to establish Arthur as a prominent historical figure was The History of the Kings of Britain written in 1135 by Geoffrey of Monmouth, a Welsh monk, and the book provides a history of the earliest kings of Britain, some 99 in all, including King Coel, known to us today from the nursery rhyme as Old King Cole. About one-fifth of the book is devoted to Arthur, and Geoffrey provides the first organized version of the story. Many of the elements that would be part of the later tradition were missing, however. Arthur's court is not at Camelot but at a place called Caerlon-on-Usk, or City of Legions. Geoffrey contributed at least three new elements to the existing histories of Arthur--he supplied Arthur with a family tree, told of Arthur's association with Merlin, and described his burial at Avalon."
Abstract This paper takes a look at the Druids who existed during the Anglo Saxon period when Britain was inhabited by a group of people called the Celts. The paper explains that the Celtic tribes were headed by a king and were divided by class into Druids, warrior nobles and commoners. The paper also tells us that the Druids were the priests and ministers of religion and that the Druids had an abundance of power and were highly respected by society. The paper discusses who the Druids were, what were their duties and functions and their beliefs. According to the paper, the Druids were contributors to the weakness of the Celtic society and their eventual downfall.
From the Paper "During a period of time known as the Anglo-Saxon period, Britain was inhabited by a group of people known as the Celts. Common speech, customs, and religion united the various Celtic tribes. Each tribe was headed by a king and was divided by class into Druids, warrior nobles, and commoners. The Druids were priests and ministers of religion. The Druids had an abundance of power and were held in high respect by the Celtic society, often-taking precedence even of the kings. The Druids even supervised all public and private disputes, issuing punishments and rewards. The influence of the Druids had a great cultural impact upon Celtic society."
