Abstract This paper examines how even though the society that was Byzantine has faded from the annals of history and gone is the Eastern Empire of the Holy Roman Emperor and his vast influence over the ancient world, the cultural diversity, architectural prowess and masterful artwork of the time remain ingrained into the fabric of our society. It shows how this type of influence is evident in modern times by a city such as New York, considered to be ?cosmopolitan.? Along with worldliness comes an interest in all things aesthetic. The architecture of the Byzantine period distinctly reflects this influence. The glory of Byzantine is not an era bygone, but rather lives at present in modern cultural diversity, architecture and artwork.
From the Paper "Most may think of luxury automobiles as having a modern futuristic bent, but the simplicity of the outside belies the splendor within. Granted there are no rotundas, pendentives, or cylindrical drums (Byzantine Architecture) present but within there is an abundance of opulence (television screens, highly polished wood paneling, leather, gold accessories etc) designed for paying tribute to the modern gods of money and status. Far fetched? Perhaps, but the suggestiveness and display of grandeur can not be ignored. "
Abstract This paper will seek to examine the role of jewelry created in both the Egyptian and Byzantine worlds. By understanding the relgious themes behind this jewelry, we can see how the Egyptians influenced the Byzantine Christian themes of jewelry making.
Abstract This paper is an analysis of the Hagia Sofia as a masterpiece of Byzantine architecture. The paper discusses the split between the East and the West of the Roman Empire. The paper examines unique architectural features of the Church that combine elements of both the East and West.
From the Paper "The Hagia Sophia located in Istanbul, Turkey is a masterpiece of Byzantine architecture and perhaps the most significant example of Byzantine art during its Golden era, combining Greek, Roman and Oriental influences. Aside from its beauty, Hagia Sophia, Greek for Church of the Holy Wisdom, is important for its artistic and architectural uniqueness as well as its religious and political significance. With the Roman Empire in severe economic and political decline, in 330 A D Emperor Constantine established the trading city of Byzantium as his new Eastern capital, renaming it Constantinople."
Abstract This paper explains that one of the most unique and forthright features of the Greek Church, the iconostasis, a screen running from wall-to-wall and decorated with icons, is the prime causal factor to differentiate the architecture of a Greek Orthodox church from Roman and Latin churches. The author points out that the most frequently used icon in the sketch of the Greek Byzantine iconostasis is "The Crucifix with Mary and John", whereas, the most frequent icon in the sketch of the Russian Orthodox iconostasis is a simple cross at the top.
Table of Contents
Introduction
The Emergence of the Iconostasis as a Consistent Theme in Byzantine Orthodox Churches
Influences that Impacted the Emergence of the Iconostasis in the East Orthodox Churches
Salient Features of the Greek Orthodox Churches and How Their Iconostasis Spread to Russia
Listing [by Frequency] of Icons in the Sketch of the Greek Byzantine Iconostasis
Russian Iconostasis of the Orthodox Church Established during the 17th?19th Centuries
Listing [by Frequency] of Icons in the Sketch of the Russian Orthodox Iconostasis
The Relevance of Iconoclasts as Perceived by St. John of Damascus and Pavel Florensky
Conclusion (s)
From the Paper "It would also be noteworthy to here acknowledge that even before being influenced by oriental trends in concern to the iconostasis early Greek Churches had a minor fence about waist high or lower, that divided the altar from the people. Naught more than an essential barrier or columns, it was common for this fence to be adorned with pictures of the saints at the top. This barrier, invariably comprised of columns at the top of which the pictures were affixed, can be idealized as the first instance of the iconoclast within the interior of the church. Gradually and eventually, the iconostasis evolved from a rather unexceptional separating fence into a "a great screen or partition running from side to side of the apse or across the entire end of the church". The iconostasis eventually came to completely obscure the altar as well as the sanctuary from the portion of the church where the worshippers are located. Solid materials, such as stone, wood and metal began to be employed in the construction of iconostasis and the final version, which is still seen today, had three doors within it. The center door, known as the royal door, leads directly to the altar while the doors to the right and left are respectively the deacon's door and the door leading to the area of the preparation of liturgy."
Abstract The paper states that the conversion of the Rus - the medieval political entity centered on the city of Kiev - is dated from 988, when its pagan ruler, Vladimir, and his subjects were baptized under the auspices of the Byzantine emperor, Basil II. The writer explains that the acceptance of Eastern Christianity may have been determined as much by geography as theology. The paper explains that, over time, the architecture, decorative arts and music, in the area of the Kievan Empire, began to reflect Byzantine style. The writer shows that one of the most significant consequences of the conversion of the Kievan Empire was the division between church and state. The paper explains that the Byzantine view of church-state relations suited the rulers of Kiev and later the Russian Tsars, who saw themselves as Caesars, who were all-powerful in their realms. It explains that autocracy has been a factor in the development of Russian leadership until the time of the Soviet Union, which itself had all-powerful leaders. In conclusion, the writer posits that had the Kievan Empire not converted to Eastern Christianity, the society and culture in Russia today would be far different from what would have developed in the absence of that conversion a millennium ago.
From the Paper "The acceptance of Eastern Christianity by the Kievan Empire may have been determined as much by geography as theology. Kiev, strategically situated on the Dnieper River, in the tenth century dominated the established trade route between the Baltic Sea in the north and the Black Sea in the south. This so-called "route from the Varyagi (Varangians or Vikings) to the Greeks," permitted trade from northern Europe to the Byzantine Empire, the Eastern Mediterranean, and various parts of Asia. The prosperity and influence of Vladimir's Kiev depended on the use and control of this route, which involved many rivers, lakes, and the portage of simple rafts and open boats between bodies of water (Barraclough 114-15). "Byzantium was not only Kiev's principal partner in this north-south trade, the two also at times fought wars against each other and at other times aided each other against the threat of third powers. In fact, the most direct cause of the conversion of Vladimir may have been an agreement between Vladimir and Emperor Basil that called for Vladimir to provide 6,000 troops to help Basil put down the rebellion of Phocas, one of Basil's generals, who had declared himself Emperor, taken over most of Asia Minor, and besieged Byzantium (Shchapov 58-59). What Vladimir got out of the agreement was marriage to an Imperial Princes, Anna, the Emperor's sister. "
Abstract This paper explains that Christian art, evolving along with the church, began in the Near East, which was a vast religious and cultural melting pot where all the competing faiths, including Judaism, Christianity, Gnosticism and many others, tended to influence each other. The author points out that the oldest sizeable and coherent body of Christian art, which can be traced to no earlier than 200 AD, is the painted murals in the Roman catacombs and the underground burial places of the Christians. The paper relates that the halo around Jesus' head stems from pagan artists, who used a halo, usually of a gold color, to mark the chief of men and women in their pictures, and from the Romans, who associated it with the cult of light as a special gift from God. Chart. List of illustrations but no illustrations.
Table of Contents
The Early Christian Church - The Jews and the Greeks
Byzantine Art
The Christian Empire
Nuns, Monks, and Priests
Saints and Martyrs
The Virgin Mary
The Halo
The Conversion of the Northern Tribes
The Celts
The English
The Saxons
The Holy Roman Emperor
East Rome
Church of St. Sophia
The Icons, the Iconostasis, and Iconoclasm
Icons
Iconostasis
Iconoclasm
The Mystics
The Effect of Islam
A Comparison of Christianity East and West
Early Christian vs. Byzantine Art
Western Society in the Middle Ages
Popes
Society and Religion
Hell and Purgatory
Gothic Cathedrals and Stain Glass Windows
The Renaissance
Exploration
The Reformation
The Modern Age
From the Paper "The first celibates in the early Christian church were women who lived lives of chastity and cleaned church buildings. These women also helped tend the sick. Many spiritually oriented celibate males started as hermits but eventually these men grouped together, elected an abbot, and agreed to abide by a set of rules. These first nuns and monks were called Benedictines. Priests were allowed to marry in the early church but the idea of a celibate priesthood was raised as early as 324 AD (Council of Nicene) but this was unenforceable. In the early church, a man could marry before he became a priest and still become a priest. He could not marry if he became a priest before marrying. The ideal of the totally celibate priesthood was not enforceable until the 11th Century. A man who wanted to become a bishop was not allowed to be married.
In the Eastern Orthodox Catholic Church, priests still are allowed to marry before taking final vows."
The paper compares and contrasts two versions of Mary with Child mosaics styles. The author pays special attention to historical and cultural influences on their artistic styles.
1,280 words (approx. 5.1 pages), 2 sources, 2002, $ 43.95
Abstract This paper compares and contrasts two mosaics depicting Mary and Jesus-one medieval, the other Byzantine. The author discusses their stylistic differences, the severity and stoicism versus warmness and emotion, and examines Christianity as seen through religious art in both societies.
From the Paper "The Medieval era produced many important art pieces ? many of which contained reference to religious figures. Because religion did, in fact, play such an important role in everyday life, religious art abounded throughout Europe . However, depending upon the area of the continent and which religion its inhabitants believed in, artists portrayed similar religious scenes in varying ways. In particular, Byzantine and Medieval pieces contained identical figures or scenes portrayed in very different ways due to the respective religion's influence on the artist. Comparison of two mosaics depicting Virgin and Child will show fundamental stylistic differences between Byzantine and Medieval art."
From the Paper "The authoritarian rule of the Byzantine emperors extended to church, state, and military. As a consequence of the complete interdependence of the church and state in Byzantium, the religious art of the Empire frequently reflected the authoritarian nature of imperial power. One of the forms this art took was the imperial votive portrait. A brief discussion of the reasons for Byzantine authoritarianism, especially in regard to control of the church, will demonstrate why such a tradition of portraiture developed. An analysis of one example, a portrait of the Emperor John II Comnenus and the Empress Irene with the Madonna, shows how such portraits were assertions of imperial power.
The Byzantine Empire came into being as the result of chaos in the Western half of the Roman Empire."
This paper discusses Byzantine Art, post-Roman Empire art: Political and religious contexts, architecture, statuary, geometric painting, icons and monumental sculpture.
1,350 words (approx. 5.4 pages), 3 sources, 1980, $ 47.95
From the Paper "The following research concerns Byzantine Art. Byzantine Art developed after the split in the Christian world which took place after the division of the Roman Empire. Christianity came to the fore in the Roman Empire during the first three centuries of the Christian era. The emperor Constantine was converted in the fourth century A.D., and this was but the official recognition of a development toward Christianity that had long been in preparation. This new religion gave hope to the masses of people for whom living conditions had become impossible. Rome finally fell not so much because of outside invasions as from internal social decay, poverty, corruption, and the loss of control by the civil government. When Constantine moved the capital from Rome to Constantinople, the empire was divided into west and east..
Constantinople was the new name for the Greek town of ... "
Overview of the rise & decline of the Byzantine Empire, the first Christian Empire. Discusses rulership of Constantine & Justinian and describes church architecture & symbolic purposes.
900 words (approx. 3.6 pages), 3 sources, 1986, $ 31.95
From the Paper "The first Christian Empire in the world was that of the Byzantine Empire founded by Constantine in 330 A.D. The Byzantine Empire started with the division of the Roman empire into East and West factions, with the eastern provinces becoming the Byzantine Empire. When the Roman Emperor Constantine was converted to Christianity, he moved the governing center from Rome to the city of Byzantium, made Christianity the state religion, and created a state that had a profound effect on the social life and outlook of the people. The first moves toward splitting up the Roman Empire had been made by Constantine's uncle, the Emperor Diocletian, who thought that the problems with the empire were related to having too much territory to the east and north out of direct control (Wenzel, 1965: pp. 11-13). The separation did not take place immediately but over a generation or so and would last for more (...)"
Abstract This paper provides a brief history of slavery in general and the different types of slavery that have evolved over the years such as agricultural slaves to farmers and domestic slavery. It discusses the rise of slavery in the Muslim world during the time of the Byzantine Empire and how in Islamic life, owning slaves was a sign of wealth. Slaves were used as soldiers, concubines, cooks and entertainers. It examines the facts that slavery still exists today in some third world Muslim countries such as Sudan and Mauritania and the issue of slave-child-soldiers, children that are kidnapped at an early age to fight as soldiers. The slave trade in the Muslim world is indeed a deplorable institution that is long over due for reform. However, it has existed for centuries and efforts of recent have only led to perpetuation.
From the Paper "There is much concern regarding the fact that slavery still exist in several Muslim countries. The Koran deals directly with ?the issue of slavery ? states that subjected or conquered people should be given the option of converting to Islam"if they refuse, only then may they be taken as slaves"and Muslims should never be enslaved by other Muslims? (Schindler 2001). When Christianity was born, the Roman Empire spanned the globe, so the question of newly conquered people never arose. Christian conversions were voluntary, thus slavery was not a religious issue, although it was obviously practiced contrary to Christian belief (Schindler 2001). However, slavery in the Islamic East developed differently."
Abstract This paper discusses how the Byzantine and Eastern cultures were the predecessors to the Romanesque and Gothic Periods of architecture in the Christian church. It points out that the Cluniac order had a major influence in the Romanesque Period, which was highlighted with few windows, thick walls, and massive columns. The Gothic period, in contrast, had stained glassed windows, thinner walls, and carved columns, with the builders of the churches incorporating Christian architecture as a means of religious aspiration. It explains that each era's architecture was a means to specifically convey their social and religious views of the Christian church.
From the Paper "The term Romanesque ?points to the principle source of the style, the buildings of the Roman Empire. In addition to classical elements, however, Romanesque architecture incorporates components of Byzantine and Eastern origin (unknown, Columbia).? Romanesque structures feature characteristic elements such as "the massive west fa"ade crowned by a tower or by twin towers, the complex design of the eastern part housing the sanctuary, and the rhythmic alternation of piers and columns in the nave (unknown, Columbia)."
Abstract During its two centuries of existence as the Byzantine capital of the Peloponnese, a number of churches and monasteries with domes and chapels were erected at Mistras. These structures played an important role in terms of promoting the religious function in the region, as well as providing a centralized focus for the ruling elite. This paper provides an examination of these monasteries and churches at Mistras, followed by a summary of the research in the conclusion.
From the Paper "In his essay, ?The impact of Frankish architecture on Thirteenth-Century Byzantine Architecture,? Charalambos Bouras writes: "In the eleventh and twelfth centuries, Byzantine ecclesiastical architecture in both the capital and the provinces was mature and self-contained, meeting to the full the church building's liturgical needs and dogmatic symbolism, as well as realizing possibilities in the development of other art forms such as sculpture and monumental painting" (2002:247). In the Peloponnenos in particular, where the principality of the Morea had been established, there are not only the most important monuments of Gothic architecture, but also the most characteristic examples of Western influence on embellished Byzantine church buildings (2002:248). The Crusaders were also responsible, according to Bouras, for building a number of strong fortresses in the areas, perhaps even a part of the palace at Mistras, and certain other new settlements. The buildings of the 13th century at Peloponnesos are numerous and were usually smaller than their forerunners (such as the Hagia Sophia), and were frequently included in monastic complexes (Bouras 2002)."
This paper discusses that the tensions between Islam and Christianity extend back almost to the beginning of Islam, with some periods in history, such as the Crusades, showing open conflict.
Abstract This paper defines the Crusades as expeditions undertaken, in fulfillment of a solemn vow, to deliver the Holy Places from Mohammedan tyranny, with the tyranny more or less assumed because the nations involved were Islamic and not Christian; religion was both the reason for the Crusades and a tool to get the warriors to fight. The author points out that, in the Muslim context, the holy war is known as a "jihad" meaning "striving" and has nothing directly to do with war, but it has been taken over by those Muslims who want to give a religious tinge to their war against the West and against Israel in particular. The paper relates that the First Crusade provided the Byzantines with the opportunity to recapture lost lands by repelling the Turks from vast territories, which enabled the empire to last for three more centuries.
From the Paper "The Crusades began with the departure from Europe of the People's Crusade of Peter the Hermit. Five groups marched east, and the first two committed such excesses along the way that they were annihilated by the Hungarians. The third group started to butcher Jews on the Rhine and was also scattered by the Hungarians. The final two groups reached Rome in 1096. Alexius received these Crusaders with caution, giving them food and money and urging them to wait for the next contingent of Crusaders outside the city walls. They began to loot the suburbs and even sacked churches, so Alexius sent them over to Civirot, a fort that he had built on the Marmara's Asiatic shore. They continued to maraude, however, and even began torturing Christians. They began to ravage in the Sultanate of Rum. Alexius had warned their leader to avoid contact with the Turks until support arrived, but he lost control of his followers. Some 25,000 were killed. Three thousand survivors were brought to New Rome to wait for the next Crusaders."
Abstract It shows how Cormack demonstrates the role that art played in influencing Byzantine society. The author develops the context and meaning of the images in Byzantine society. We learn how the dominant role of religion was central, since Byzantine society was primarily a religious one.
