An extensive historical overview of the compulsory sterilization laws, their effect on modern policy and their impact on women's rights in the United States.
Abstract This in-depth paper outlines the history of eugenic policies against mentally disabled persons in the United States since the beginning of the 20th century and examines how such policies have been expanded to include minorities, especially poor women. It show these eugenic policies continue in the United States today via limitations on the reproductive rights of welfare recipients. The paper includes explanations of fallacies of arguments used to support these policies, and concludes that these policies unfairly discriminate against women.
From the Paper "While the horrors committed in Nazi Germany forced the United States to reevaluate some of its more extreme eugenic tendencies, policymakers have failed to this day to examine some of the most basic ideologies that led to the original adoption of the eugenic measures. Unfortunately, the history of forced sterilization in the United States in the twentieth century continues to the present day, even to the point of pervading the debate on welfare reform. These arguments about the control of the reproductive rights of women receiving welfare aid are detrimental to the rights of women. It is therefore necessary that issues concerning the reproductive rights of women receiving welfare be eliminated from all discourse on the topic of welfare ?reform.?
Abstract This paper discusses how the growing human population is having a devastating effect on the earth's resources. The author presents many different scenarios that support the argument that human population growth must be curbed in order to prevent the earth's destruction. Some of the materials presented include the relationship between humans and the ecosystem and how over the years, human insensitivities have progressively damaged this ecosystem. Some of the topics discussed also include how the ecosystem is affected by pollution, water shortages, global warming, increased meat and fish consumption and excessive stripping of the forests, which according to the research presented by this author, are all a result of over-population.
From the Paper "When this occurs naturally, such as the conversion of forest to grassland due to fires by lightning, it is called "ecosystem development or ecological succession" (Ecosystem pg). Carrying capacity refers to the number or organisms that a particular environment can support. "If the carrying capacity of an ecosystem is exceeded by overpopulation, there will be insufficient resources and one or more species will decline" until balance is restored (Ecosystem pg). And if the population is less than the carrying capacity of an environment, then the number of a species will increase until it balances the available resources (Ecosystem pg). Humans all too often disrupt the carrying capacity of an area by over-grazing on grasslands, over-culling a species, or introducing a non-indigenous species into an area (Ecosystem pg). However, other forms of human activity are having consequential effects on the ecosystem of the planet."
Abstract This paper introduces the topic of human cloning and outlines its history from the discovery that sheep with short legs could be bred, to the advanced technology and knowledge available today. It looks at different processes of cloning and the laws laid down to prevent human technology from advancing. It examines the rationale and ethics of those pro cloning with discussion of the scientific breakthroughs it can provide with skin for burn victims, brain cells for the brain damaged, spinal cord cells for quadriplegics and paraplegics etc. It also presents the other side of the argument, how human cloning and genetic manipulation intrude upon the profound nature of the inherently unknowable and represent the bottomless depths of human arrogance and irresponsibility.
From the Paper "It was not until 1984 that a Danish scientist, Steen Willadsen, reported he had made a genetic copy of a lamb from early sheep embryo cells, a process now called ?twinning.? Other scientist eventually used his method to "twin" cattle, pigs, goats, rabbits and rhesus monkeys. He later joined Grenada Genetics to commercially clone cattle, and did this from differentiated cells. In other parts of the world, scientist began cloning a cow from embryo cells, and in 1990, the Human Genome Project began. Four years later, scientist Neal First produced genetic copies of calves from embryos. They grew to 120 cells, and in 1995, Ian Wilmut replicated Neal First's experiment with differentiated cells from sheep, but he put embryo cells into an inactive state before transferring their nuclei to sheep eggs. "
Abstract Argues in favor of genetic alteration for the living (for brain disorders, AIDS & other diseases), but against it for the unborn. Discusses scientific experiments. Ethical implications. Implications of an altered species. Need for government control of biotechnology. Stresses the need to form policies on genetic engineering of human embryos.
From the Paper "Today, we collectively stand on the threshold of science fiction. Genetic engineering has emerged -- faster, simpler, and more accessible than anyone had foreseen. The pounding gait of science has, in many ways, outpaced the best efforts of theology, politics, and ethics. Each of us planning to live well into the 21st century can expect to be affected by the ramifications of genetic engineering. Already, in vitro fertilization has become routine, and sex selection before conception is possible for aspiring parents(Schaeffer, 1999, p.15); Genetic enhancements are on the verge of providing mankind with drugs to treat brain disorders like Alzheimer's and epidemics such as the AIDS virus(Williams, 2000, p.9); Total genetic engineering of human embryos is expected to be safe and efficient within the next 50 years(Silver, 1999, p.26). We must form..."
Abstract Defines this protozoan infection. How it is caused by an intestinal parasite, C. parvum. Recongnition as a disease in animals, and later as a human pathogen. How it is transmitted and spread in the body. Pevalence and symptoms of the infection. Diagnostic procedures. Lack of any successful treatment. Prevention techniques.
From the Paper "Cryptosporidiosis
Cause
Cryptosporidiosis is caused by the intestinal parasite, Cryptosporidium parvum, which was first recognized as a human pathogen in 1976 (1). Cryptosporidiosis has been recognized as a disease in animals for a long time, and is thought to be transmitted by contaminated water and food, and may be transmitted sexually in homosexual males (2). It is a frequent opportunistic infection in AIDS patients.
The protozoan C. parvum is usually ingested as an oocyst measuring from four to six microns in diameter (3). Once it gets into the digestive system, the protective outer layer of the oocyst softens and the oocyst splits open and releases four sporozoites into the cells of the small intestine. The ..."
Abstract This paper discusses the concepts of genetically modified (GM) seed and the controversy that lies in the illegality of commercially growing GM seed within the European Union that hasn"t been approved by EU regulators. It uses as an example the venture between AstraZeneca Plc and the Dutch cooperative Cosun in manufacturing GM seed.
Outline:
The Corporation
The Controversy
How Did this Happen"
How Do GM Products Get Approval?
What Regulation Exists?
Where does Zeneca Agrochemicals Fit in with these Accusations?
Fallout?
Sources
From the Paper "Regulations do exist for testing GM seed; different for the sale in both the United States and Europe. In Europe, before any genetically modified crop can be used in food, it is evaluated by an independent scientific advisory committee that reports to the EU government. Each EU member state may then examine the crop with their own expert committees. All member states then decide together and the permit comes from the state where the crop was first assessed. Any food product that is not genetically pure (within 1%) in Europe must be labeled as such.(20)"
Abstract The paper evaluates both sides of the arguments around human cloning and an ethical and moral system that effectively deals with the various implications involved. The author feels that, because of the uncertainties involved with the technique of human cloning, the potential risk is more significant than any perceived benefits. This paper presents extensive background material to help understand reproductive biotechnologies and human cloning including a glossary of terms.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Introduction to Reproductive Technologies
History of Cloning
First Mammal Cloning
Syllogistic Argument
Moral and Ethical System for Human Cloning
Glossary of Terms
From the Paper "A final claim about the negative impact of human cloning is its adverse affect on the human gene pool. If human cloning were to progress to a wide enough scale, it might cause a reduction in human diversity. While the consideration of human cloning en masse is currently not a foreseeable scenario, nevertheless, the government should ensure the protection of the human race by establishing laws that prohibit human cloning."
Abstract This paper reports on an experiment in which, using sewage water to locate the E.coli bacteriophage, the bacteriophage was isolated from the original culture and placed in an enriched medium to grow and reproduce. The author continues that each one of the plaques represents a viron from the original culture, and, by counting the plaques, they were able to determine the concentration of bacteriophages in the culture. The author reports that findings among the different lab groups differed significantly, but this could be explained by the fact that the experiments were performed on separate days a week apart.
Table of Contents
Abstract
Introduction
Materials and Methods
Results
Discussion
From the Paper "E.coli was grown for 48 hrs in TSB tubes at 37degrees C by the lab assistant. (Sewage from the Cheney Sewage Works.) The sewage was then centrifuged and the bacteria containing portion was filtered using a 100 mL filter apparatus. I picked up my E.coli and filtered sewage from the lab assistant. Next, I gathered 7 plates of triptocase soy agar. These were labeled 1x10^-3 to 1x10^-9 and placed into the incubator to bring their temperature up to that of the bacteria/phage solution to be added later. 9 Eppendorf tubes were labeled 1x10^-1 to 1x10^-9, these were then set aside. Sterile saline was then gathered and using a Beckman autopipetter. I transferred 900 uL of sterile saline into each Eppendorf tube."
A discussion of the discovery of mad cow disease, to the present, and the role the media/government has played in control, prevention, and the dissemination of information.
Abstract Examines the treatment of Mad-cow disease in the media, and by the government.
Discusses the following topics
Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy and Scrapie
What Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies Do
Two Theories on the Action of Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies
British Government Admits Mad Cow Disease Exists (1987)
Testing Results by the British government MAFF
Culpability of the British Medical Society
The Spread of CJD
Steps Taken by the British Government
From the Paper "Where the industry has gone wrong is in listening to the PR people. The mad-cow epidemic is not an information management issue?it is a disease that will not go away.? These words are from an interview with Dr. Pringle, a member of the Sperling Biomedical Foundation, and the founder of www.mad-cow.org. I believe that they highlight what has been fundamentally wrong about the treatment of mad-cow disease by the British government and the British media. Several grave errors have been made about the treatment of this issue, and they continue to have repercussions today, as we explore America's mad-cow incidents, and rising problems in Europe, Asia, and South America. At the time this paper was written, mad cow disease had been confirmed in domestic cattle in Belgium, France, Ireland, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, Switzerland, Spain and Germany."
Abstract Embryology is defined in Blakiston's Medical Dictionary as "the science dealing with the embryo and its development". This paper examines the development of a few microscopic cells which develop into a human fetus, then to an embryo and then on to birth. The paper also includes a detailed description of the ear formation of a fetus. Illustrations are included in the paper.
Table of Contents:
Embryology defined from Webster's Dictionary.
Embryology defined from Blakiston's Medical Dictionary.
Psalms 139:15-16
From Cell to Embryo
Formation of a Zygote, Morula and Blastocyte
Three Germ Layers-Endometrium, Ectoderm and Mesoderm
Major Developments of the Fetus to an Embryo
The Ear
The Formation of the Outer Ear
The Formation of the Middle Ear
The Formation of the Inner Ear
Conclusion
Formation of a New Life
Fascination of Formation
A Gift of Life from our Creator
From the Paper "Once the sperm and ovum meet, a zygote is formed with a set of forty-six chromosomes. In just a few hours, this zygote multiplies into two cells, then four, eight, etc. This large clump of cells is known as the morula. The morula will for the next four days continue on to travel through the Fallopian tubes. The sphincter, which is usually impenetrable, relaxes due to progesterone allowing this hollow clump of cells, now known as a blastocyte, to pass through and attach itself to the lining of the uterus. This step is called implantation."
Abstract This paper discusses stem cell research and how it is one of the most hotly contested issues in society. With a pro stem cell bias, it examines the biology and looks at both sides of the argument. It examines how stem cell research can provide the cures for diseases, relief for victims of traumatic injuries and a multitude of other medical and scientific benefits. It also discusses how those opposed claim that it is unethical because in order to obtain the stem cells, a human embryo must be destroyed, which they claim is equal to taking a human life.
From the Paper "Numerous noted scientists have undertaken the task of stem cell research. New discoveries and applications have happened at a breakneck pace. Ronald McKay of the Institute of Neurological Disorders, says that the same control systems that regulate specialization of cells in a fetus continue to operate in adults, making prospects for brain repair seem realistic (qtd. in Beardsley 1). Angelo Vescovi, of the National Neurological Institute in Milan discovered that neural stem cells could form blood if they are placed in bone marrow."
Abstract At the beginning of the millennium life expectancy doubled to approximately 80 years of age, compared to what it was in 1900. This paper studies the new field of immunogerontology that explores the immune system in the aging adult. Recent research has indicated that the immune systems of aged people undergo characteristic changes, generally in the direction of decreased immune competence. As the research presented in this paper reveals, aging affects many aspects of the immune process, and since the immune system interacts with every system of the body it becomes important to have a well-developed understanding of the mechanisms related to the breakdown of this system in the later years of life.
From the Paper "Malnutrition in aging populations is another mechanism, which contributes to the decline in the efficiency of the signal transduction system and as a result leads to the degradation of the immune response. Calcium is an integral part of the signaling mechanism and the biochemical pathways that compose it. Enzymes necessary for T cell proliferation are rendered useless in the absence of calcium as shown by Miller et al (1996). Measurements made in the lab of IL-2 production were shown to be substantially lower than in T cells belonging to younger individuals. It is important to remember that IL-2 is produced after the antigen binds to the receptor-binding site and is responsible for promoting the proliferation of the T cell. Though these experiments are mainly carried out on mice, the biochemical pathways are very similar and results tend to indicate that immunodeficiency in the aging adult is due in part to the decline in calcium concentrations. Other nutrients such as zinc and vitamin E are also important in the proper functioning of the immune system affecting cytokine production and imparting a protective role from damage by free radicals respectively (Moriguchi, 1998)."
This paper explores gene therapy, a set of approaches to the treatment of human disease based on transfer of genetic material (DNA) into an individual or the introduction of genetic material into cells for therapeutic purposes.
Abstract As gene therapy has moved from the laboratory into the clinic, several issues have emerged as central to the development of this technology: gene identification, gene expression and gene delivery. The author of this paper points out that gene therapy is a method for the treatment or prevention of disease that utilizes genes to provide the patient's cells with the genetic information necessary to produce specific therapeutic proteins needed to correct or combat disease. The paper also introduces genomics research, which seeks to map the human genome, or total DNA content of the human cell.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Background and Direction
Potential
Other Gene Therapy Directions
From the Paper "Genes are segments of deoxyribonucleic acid ("DNA") present in each cell in the body, which provide the information cells use to produce protein. Protein production begins in the nucleus of the cell when the gene is copied or "transcribed", resulting in the creation of a form of ribonucleic acid ("RNA") known as "messenger RNA." Specific DNA sequences called "promoters" control the extent of copying (transcription) of genes. Messenger RNA then moves from the nucleus of the cell into the cell's cytoplasm, where it is "translated" by the cell into protein. The process of transcription and translation that results in protein production by the cell is called "gene expression". The absence or defective structure of specific genes may change the composition or pattern of proteins expressed by the cell, causing certain inherited diseases such as cystic fibrosis and muscular dystrophy as well as acquired diseases such as cancer."
Abstract This paper explores the chemical structure and clinical uses of technetium-based radio-pharmaceuticals which have since the 1970s, served as the mainstay for every hospital's nuclear medicine department. Today, fully 85% of all diagnostic scans in American hospitals use 99mTc in some chemical form. It includes a brief overview of several "technetium-essential" and "technetium-tagged" radio-pharmaceuticals, as well as a discussion of current areas of research and development for new technetium drugs.
From the Paper "Technetium-99m has several physical properties that make it ideal for use in nuclear medicine. Foremost among these is that Tc-99m generally emits only gamma rays. These gamma ray photons are of a high enough energy (140,000 eV) that they can easily pass through dense tissue and exit the body, but can be effectively stopped and detected by a special gamma camera. Other radionuclides generate alpha and/or beta particles, which are diagnostically useless since they lack the penetrating ability to exit the human body. Worse, the ionizing ability of these decay products can damage tissue."
Abstract This paper describes gallium-based chemotherapeutic drugs. Included is a brief discussion of the history and development of these drugs, clinical uses for gallium, and problems with gallium chemotherapy. Also included is a discussion of potential alternate uses for gallium drugs, including using gallium as an antiviral or to combat hypercalcemia.
From the Paper "Gallium is a naturally occurring group IIIa heavy metal. Because of its low melting temperature (303 K), chemists have long used gallium industrially as a component of low-melting alloys. It has only been within the last forty years, however, that scientists have studied gallium in medicine. Following the serendipitous discovery of platinum's antitumor properties in the late 1960s, the U.S. National Cancer Institute started a systematic study of several metallic elements to see if they too might display anticancer effects. While all of the Group IIIa elements (boron, aluminum, gallium, and thallium) displayed significant cytotoxic activity, gallium was the most active and least toxic of these metals when tested against animal tumors.1 Later, in a separate development, researchers noted gallium's ability to localize in bone, leading clinicians to use 67Ga citrate in some diagnostic bone scans. In the 1970s, a physician conducting such a scan observed quite accidentally that gallium accumulated in nonosseous malignant tissue as well.2 Indeed, further tests showed that gallium was the only IIIa metal to display cytotoxic activity when inoculated at a site other than the tumor itself.1 These unique properties spurred a great deal of research interest in developing gallium-based chemotherapeutic agents."
