Abstract This paper begins by providing a history of the evolution of zero and discusses the origin of the symbol. It then discusses the origins of the concept of "zero" and how this was perceived differently by various ancient cultures such as the Egyptians, the Mayans and the Babylonians. It then focuses specifically on the "Babylonian zero" and how this differed in concept from other figures at the time. The paper includes several diagrams and pictures.
From the Paper "The symbol zero evolved into its present form after quite a number of transformations. The idea of how the symbol was devised also harbors a few contradictory ideas. Opinions range from it being a dot originally, replaced by a circle with a dot in the center and then maturing to the current form, an oval shape that we all are familiar with. (Pearce, I., 2002). The Egyptian zero that evolved has also been equated with the hieroglyph for beauty, and that of the human windpipe, heart and lungs. (Williams, S. W., 2002)"
Abstract This paper deals primarily with the creation myth as found in the Bible and how the story itself is a hybrid of Babylonian writings that existed hundreds of years before the writing of the "Old Testament". It attempts to show how the two myths of creation, "Enuma Elish" and "Genesis," have parallels and differences that ultimately were shaped by the cultures that recorded them.
From the Paper "Enuma Elish, the Mesopotamian story of creation, is the perfect embodiment of humanity's reliance on the gods, and also the prevailing theme of polytheism, the jealousy and greed of the gods. The kind of humanistic qualities that are given to the gods Tiamat, Marduk and Anshar will later be echoed in the quarreling of the Greek gods of Mount Olympus. The need to personify the gods and make them seem simply as more powerful humans, with all the emotions and drives that come with the human condition, is a method of further understanding a world that presented so many unknown to the unsophisticated and mystical thinking Babylonians."
Abstract This paper discusses how there have been thousands of excellent book, journal and article sources that have examined and analyzed the fall of Jerusalem and the Babylonian exile, for this was a profoundly important period in human history and has been the subject of extended study by scholars and historians for more than two-thousand years. This paper researches three especially impressive sources because they are considered by most historians and biblical scholars to be among the most definitive, illuminating, and comprehensive accounts of Jerusalem's fall and the subsequent exile of the Jewish people to Babylon.
Abstract The paper uses the Code of Hammurabi, the Funeral Oration of Pericles, and Polybius' discussion of the Roman constitution, all as examples of the political thought present in each author's culture. It then compares and contrasts those political thoughts and ideas.
From the Paper "In the course of historical research, it would seem, one of the primary goals is to seek out recognizable patterns of development, and of similarities and differences as well. One of the major ways of doing so is in the comparison of whatever written documents have survived a culture. For instance, one can draw some interesting conclusions from studying various sources from the ancient Babylonians, Athenian Greeks, and Romans. Within the frame of the western tradition each of these cultures effectively developed the ideas of the previous cultures further. The Athenians drew from the Babylonians, and the Romans expounded on the works of both cultures. This can be seen by a comparison of the Code of Hammurabi, the Funeral Oration of Pericles, and Polybius' discussion of Rome's constitution in his histories. Though each culture, as demonstrated through the above works, differed in many ways from the others, the earlier ones were doubtlessly the building blocks for more sophisticated and modern ways of thought that followed."
Abstract This paper examines the stele of Hammurabi and discusses the information that surrounds it and how it correlates with today's western society. The paper recounts the general history of the ancient Babylonian king, Hammurabi, paying particular attention to his codes protecting all classes of the Babylonian society, including women and slaves. The paper also addresses the social and judicial structures, many of which are outlined on the stele. The paper concludes that Hammurabi gave to the world not only a set of laws that ruled society and business, but also a tradition of the importance of justice under those laws. The paper includes an appendix, which provides a translation of the enscription on the stele of Hammurabi.
From the Paper "Hammurabi's Code consists of 44 columns of text, 28 paragraphs, of which contain the actual code. There are 282 laws, possibly more have been rubbed off, that probably amended common Babylonian law rather than define it. The code describes regulations for legal procedure, fixed rates on services performed in most branches of commerce and describes property rights, personal injury, and penalties for false testimony and accusations. The code has no laws regarding religion."
Abstract This research will compare and contrast the creation myths of Babylonia (En?ma Elish) and the Judeo-Christian tradition (Genesis) through a discussion of the pattern of ideas in each creation myth and how they relate historically to each religion.
From the Paper "This research will compare and contrast the creation myths of Babylonia (En"ma Elish) and the Judeo-Christian tradition (Genesis) through a discussion of the pattern of ideas in each creation myth and how they relate historically to each religion.
The creation story of En(ma Elish--named for the first words of the story, "When above" or "When on high"-- predates the Genesis version of creation by an estimated 500 years, having been dated at 1950 BC. The earliest written Semitic sources, which survive as fragments of various Old Testament books, have been dated at the fourteenth century BC (Babylonia). According to Senior (RG2-3), Genesis was composed around 1000 BC and gives an account of events and personalities flourishing from a period roughly equivalent to the time of the En"ma Elish, 1850 to 1250 BC, the estimated period of the narrative events. However, the..."
Abstract This paper discusses how "The Epic of Gilgamesh" has all the qualities of a classic epic, gods, heroes and huge battle scenes. It examines how the ancient Babylonian text, preserved on stone tablets, is representative of poetry in a number of ways and how some key elements stand out. It looks at how the friendship that develops between Gilgamesh and Enkidu is remarkable and evaluates how the role of women in the epic is also characteristic of epic poetry in general. They are strong figures, despite having supporting roles in the narrative. It looks at how Gilgamesh, through all his struggles and quests, emerges as a legendary hero. Of noble, semi-divine birth, Gilgamesh's status remains unquestioned throughout the tale. His heroism is another hallmark of the epic genre and another reason why the poem endures for almost three millennia.
From the Paper "Gilgamesh's friendship with Enkidu is a central theme of the Epic, and such close male bonding is a universal characteristic of this type of literature. The two men begin as rivals of equal strength: ?So the mighty brothers fought at first / pushing and shoving each other / for hours and hours enraged. / Then a calm force soothed / then well-matched spirits / to bring a peace and rest their strife,? (Tablet 2, Column 4, lines 76-81). Proving their manliness and honor to one another, they solidified their friendship, which is described as ?sacred,? (Tablet 3, Column 1, lines 1-3). Furthermore, the two men both become bored with mundane city life, and decide to embark on a journey together. Fueled by each other's bravery and courage, the two men endure many hardships along the way such as the demon Humbaba. Enkidu's death devastates Gilgamesh, who overtly displays his human emotions by becoming severely depressed: "Then Gilgamesh wept some more / for his dead friend"Despite respite / he could not sleep or dream that night. / Instead he wandered through the woods,? (Tablet 9, Column 1, lines 1-2; 19-21)."
This paper discusses the religion and society of the earliest known human civilization, Mesopotamia, which is located in the region between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in present-day Iraq.
Abstract This paper explains that Mesopotamia, named "land between two rivers" by the Greeks, is the generic name for many different civilizations that existed in this area over a long period, but were relatively similar in their cultures, religions, and societies. The oldest is the Sumerian, followed by Akkadian, Babylonian, and the Assyrian civilizations. The author points out that the importance of religion in the lives of the ancient Mesopotamian people was overwhelming and affected all aspects of their lives because, in the absence of other fields of intellectual discourse that are available to the modern man, only religion could provide the Mesopotamians an explanation of the forces that governed their existence. The paper relates that, although women's position in the society varied between city-states and changed over time, the Mesopotamian society basically was highly patriarchal, with the wife's position in the household firmly below that of her husband.
Table of Contents
Religion
Importance
Sources of Information
Sumerian Beliefs
Developmental Stages of the Mesopotamian Religion
Mesopotamian Religion
Temples
Mesopotamian Society
Caste System
A Patriarchal Society
From the Paper "The characteristics of the Mesopotamian society and the way in which developed were largely determined by the geography of the region. The rich fertile soil of the area, which was the result of the rich silt and water provided by the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, attracted settlers to Mesopotamia. The rich land meant the creation of food surpluses, which allowed some settlers to move away from agriculture and into trade. It also resulted in the growth of the population that, in turn, gave rise to the process of urbanization. Most of the land was owned by temples and the king, which was "leased" out to workers who were provided with the land and tools in return for part of the profit."
Abstract This paper examines how creation myths, such as the Babylonian and Hebrew (Genesis) accounts, speak a great deal to the nature of human relationships with one another and with nature; at the same time, both also speak of the religious and political interests of their time. It looks at how it is also possible to see these myths as a way of entrenching particular social mores, such as patriarchy or political values.
From the Paper "The psychological struggle of biological creation is evident in these myths -- the struggle between parent and child for independence and dominance, and the struggle of the child to evolve into adulthood. One common theme in Mideast/mediterranean mythology is that of tension between generations and genders. In Babylonian mythology, Aspu, father of the gods, conspires to kill his many children because they are too loud and boisterous. In response to Aspu's threats, EA kills his father. A similar story takes place twice in Greek creation myths, where Cronos both kills his murderous father and attempts to slay his own children, one of whom (Zeus) rises up to cast him down. Babylonian myth continues this war between the generations by describing how at last the mother of the gods, Tiamat, becomes filled with rage and takes a new consort with whom she creates a race of monsters and goes to war against her sons."
This paper compares the flood creation stories in Gilgamesh and in the Book of Genesis in the Bible, which have caused many discussions among scholars involved with ancient civilizations.
Abstract This paper explains that, although native to different civilizations, Noah to the Hebrews and Utnapishtim to the Babylonians, these two stories are very similar to each other, with only specific details being different. he author points out that these similarities have brought some people to believe that one of the stories developed from a copy of the other story. The paper states that these stories tell of the power of the all-powerful God or god of the people and how the people are afraid to displease their divine power.
From the Paper "There are many similarities between the two flood stories. In both stories, the divine are annoyed with humanity. In the book of Genesis, God notices man has become sinful and wicked in their actions and thoughts. In Gilgamesh, the divine assembly find humankind too numerous and noisy. In an effort to rid the earth of humankind, both stories tell of a flood that will destroy everything including animals.
However, in each story, a righteous man finds favor with God and has his life spared. In the book of Genesis, God finds favor with Noah and warns him of his plans to destroy the world. In Gilgamesh, Ea does not agree with Enlil and his plans to flood the earth so he warns Utnapishtim, through a dream, of Enlil's plan. After finding out about the flood, Noah and Utnapishtim both build arks using the specifications provided to them and bring in every living creature into the ark."
Abstract In this review of the old Babylonian heroic poem "Gilgamesh", the author states that one of the most important functions of "Gilgamesh" was to educate the masses in morality and psychology. The author contrasts the responses to death of Gilgamesh and Enkidu as a way that the ancient readers could learn much about the reactions and interactions of real people. The author, in detail, describes and analyzes the separate reactions to death of the characters Gilgamesh and Enkidu and how they approached it. In conclusion, the author tells us that both characters serve to teach a very powerful lesson about dealing with death - in the realistic sense (Enkidu) and the idealized sense (Gilgamesh) and believes that this lesson alone may or may not justify the existence of this magnificent epic, but it certainly explains why it has lasted for so many millennia.
From the Paper "Dying, Enkidu comes to accept his fate, then becomes more and more depressed as he approaches death. (Norton Anthology, p. 28) As Enkidu realizes he is going to die, his anger and bargaining give way to what may be interpreted as acceptance. As he begins to tell Gilgamesh of his dream, he prefaces his account with "It was I who cut down the cedar, I who leveled the forest, I who slew Humbaba and now see what has become of me." This realization - said in what seems to be a relatively quiet, non-aggressive tone, is as close as he will ever get to acceptance before his death process begins. As he nears death, his eyes grow "blind from weeping" as he plunges into depression, but then seems to reconcile matters within himself, saying to Gilgamesh: "...the great goddess cursed me and I must die in shame. I shall not die like a man fallen in battle; I feared to fall, but happy is the man who falls in battle, for I must die in shame." (Norton Anthology, p. 29) This phrase as a whole, and especially the fact that he says "must," can be interpreted to signify that just as he dies, he accepts his fate."
Tags: fate, death, mourning, depressed, phrophecy, existence
Abstract This paper discusses life in the Holy Land for the Jews after they returned from their Babylonian exile to the Palestine area. The paper discusses the role of Ezra in bringing the Jews back and the renewal of their faith. The paper also looks at how Alexander the Great brought the ethos or the value system of the Greeks to the Holy Land and then discusses Herod's role in the building of the Temple.
From the Paper "In 4 B.C., after the death of Herod, a revolt took place in the Holy Land, and the Roman Empire split Palestine into three districts ruled by each son of Herod. Herod's son Archelaus ruled over Judea. One of Herod's son, Herod Antipas, received the territory of Galilee north of Judea. Herod Antipas eventually beheaded John the Baptist and actually participated in the trial of Jesus. Tabor (2007) reported that Mary of Nazareth was only fourteen at the time of Herod's death when the revolts began to take place. Luke (2:5) tells of Joseph and Mary's journey to Bethlehem (p. 27). When they returned to Nazareth from Bethlehem, the revolt had left the city in ruin."
Abstract The intent of this research analysis is to compare and contrast multiple versions of the flood myth, in order to identify the predominant motifs that drive the flood myth and to discern the similarities and differences between each of these tales. The analysis begins with a brief review of each of the flood myths highlighting important events, then continues by comparing and contrasting the similarities and significance of each of the flood myths relative to contemporary society. The paper finds multiple parallels in each of the stories mentioned. The primary similarity includes the presence of gods or a God that facilitates the flood. However, the paper also finds that while each of the flood myths share many similarities, they differ in many respects, particularly with regard to the flood motif.
Outline:
Introduction
Biblical Version: Israelitic Genesis 6-9: Story of Noah
Babylonian Atrahasis and Epic of Gilgamesh Motif
Hellenistic Babylonian Berossos - Motif
Babylonian Erra and Ishum - Motif
Comparisons and Similarities
Contrasting the Motifs
Summary of Similarities
Conclusions and Synopsis
From the Paper "Most cultures or societies share their own unique version of the Great Flood Myth. While many associate the Great Flood with biblical versions of the tale that involve Noah, in reality the flood story enjoys and ancient and relevant history. The biblical version of the flood story, often referred to as the Genesis account, suggests that God sent the flood to rid the world of wickedness resulting from mankind's wrongful ways. Sin therefore acted as the motivation for the flood. Multiple versions of the flood myth however predate the Genesis account. Many of these arose in the Near East, with versions evident from Mesopotamia, including the "Babylonian Flood Myth" (Crapo, 2000). The Babylonian version (s), often dated to 2,000 BCE provide many similarities to the Genesis version."
Traces the development of civilizations from Mesopotamia and Egypt and the influence of the Hebrews on their societies, as seen in historical ancient documents.
Abstract Mesopotamia was the land of four primary civilizations: the Sumerian, the Akkadians, the Babylonian and the Assyrians. The paper shows that the Hebrews, like the Akkadians, belong to a group of people known as Semites and from there we can see the influence of Mesopotamian culture in some of the Hebrews traditions. The paper shows that during the same time, civilization began in Egypt. A distinct difference can be seen in the social, religious and political system from Mesopotamia and the link between the two civilizations are the Hebrews. The paper examines historical documents from all three societies - "The Epic of Gilgamesh", first passed on by word of mouth and later recorded by the Sumerians around the third millennium and finally edited and written down in cuneiform by the Babylonians; "Instructions of Kagemni", a set of etiquette amongst Egyptian noblemen and government executives; and finally the Holy Hebrew Bible ("Tanach"). The paper shows how the three societies are linked through proof in these documents.
From the Paper ""Hymn to Aton" reflects the political and social status of the time and adds to the importance of the aid of god to proper management of a territory and the people within. This was the first and only attempt of a Egyptian ruler to a monotheistic society. It could be argued that this could be an isolated attempt or that the Hebrews somehow influenced Amenhotep IV to this change. It is very important to consider this possibility since it would make the transferring of similar traditions between the Mesopotamians, the Egyptians and the Hebrews civilizations understandable.
The role of women is important and well respected in Egyptian civilization, perhaps more than Mesopotamian. The "Hymn to Aton" recognizes the importance of both sexes for procreation. This document is used just as the "Laws of Hammurabi" to better control his territory at a time when the clergy and the multitude of gods and temples are gaining popularity and, obviously, control."
Abstract This paper explores the differences and similarities between "The Epic of Gilgamesh", one of the oldest recorded writings from Sumerian or Babylonian mythology, with "Genesis" from the Judeo-Christian Bible. The paper argues that one of the main differences between the epic and "Genesis", is the Babylonian view that the gods are dangerous for mortals, and that their laws are irrational and cannot be predicted by the human mind. For Judaism and Christianity, on the other hand, God is the bearer of righteousness and a symbol of justice and everything that is morally virtuous. Nonetheless, the paper holds that there is a striking resemblance between the two accounts. The paper attempts to provide evidence sustaining the claim that the Mesopotamian account of the great flood is highly relevant to Christianity. It concludes that the myth of the flood is valid and incorporated in Judaism and Christianity and also in the collective conscience of the peoples who did not follow Yahweh.
From the Paper "The Judaic-Christian and the Mesopotamian systems of belief are in clear opposition. Christianity and Judaism praise respect and obedience for the divinity as evidence of God's greatness and moral righteousness. God is the central figure of the faith system because He represents all that is good and right thus humanity must obey Him; here obedience is understood as a definite obligation. On the other hand, for Mesopotamians, respect and piety are the result of humanity's acknowledgement that it is both mortal and weaker than the gods. In this sense, the two virtues are not moral obligations, but a practical attitude which serves as an acknowledgement of the superiority of nature in terms of its power over humans."
