Abstract In order to better understand the issue of solar energy, this paper presents a definition of the terms and concepts relating to solar energy. The paper examines the technologies that are currently used to put solar energy to work. A short historical background on the development of solar technology in the past sixty years is presented. The paper explores the reasons why it is important to develop solar energy and discusses its future costs and benefits.
From the Paper "Solar energy is radiation from the Sun that can produce heat, generate electricity, or cause chemical reactions. Solar energy is inexhaustible and nonpolluting, but it is not an efficient energy source, since the Earth's atmosphere absorbs or scatters over 50% of incoming solar radiation. Solar collectors collect the radiation and transfer it as heat to a carrier fluid. It can then be used for heating. Solar cells convert solar radiation directly into electricity, by means of the photoelectric effect.
Very often, there is confusion about the various methods used to harness the sun's abundant and clean energy. Energy from the sun can be categorized in two ways: in the form of heat (or thermal energy), and in the form of light energy. Solar thermal technologies use the sun's heat energy to heat substances (such as water or air) for applications such as space heating, pool heating and water heating for homes and businesses. There is a variety of products on the market that utilize thermal energy. Often the products used for this application are called solar thermal collectors and can be mounted on the roof of a building or in some other sunny location. The sun's heat can also be used to produce electricity on a large utility-scale by converting the sun's heat energy into mechanical energy. "
Abstract A look at Immanuel Velikovsky's theories of the justification of 'miraculous' events which he claimed had been caused by major astronomical event. The author focuses mainly on the claims outlined in his popular book, "Worlds in Collision".
From the Paper "Immanuel Velikovsky, author of Worlds in Collision, was very well read when it came to the texts of ancient cultures. In his book he argues that our solar system has changed dramatically within the last few millennia, impacting considerably on the course of history on Earth. I will attempt to show that his statement, based on these ancient writings, is flawed. He does not question the veracity of the texts and takes everything said as literal, leaving them greatly open to interpretation. I will also illustrate how Velikovsky's theory is disproved by geographic evidence, which he fails to investigate."
Abstract This paper is an argumentative exercise based on the thesis that the first processes that led to life on earth have taken place elsewhere thereby making it valid to believe that we are not alone in this universe.
From the Paper "Today we know that Galileo was right. Throughout history, people have been ridiculed, harassed and severely punished for their views that didn"t seem to fit in with the currently accepted cultural beliefs. Is it arrogant to assume that we are the only life in the universe" Almost everyone has caught himself or herself looking up at the sky wondering what that flashing light in the sky is. Almost everyone has wondered if we are alone in the world. And almost everyone has wondered about the truth in all the television shows and movies portraying aliens. Extraterrestrials are alive and well in our universe. They might not reveal themselves to us, but they do exist."
Abstract This paper explains why Galileo Galilei, one of the most well-known astronomers and mathematicians, was one of the most controversial people of his time.
From the Paper " In the years to follow Galileo contributed much to the mathematic and scientific field. In 1609, Galileo was able to observe a Dutch mans invention, which Galileo would much be remembered for. This was the first telescope. Using his great technical and mathematical skill Galileo improved the telescope greatly. He also began to look at the sky with it. He wrote down his observations in a book he called Message From the Stars. Galileo also did much on free fall and even published some books on the subject. In his later years Galileo studied motion and strength of objects. He wrote a book on this called Discoveries on Two New Sciences. The book had to be smuggled out of Italy because at this time Galileo was forbid by law to publish any more books. "
Abstract This paper takes a critical look at the book "Rare Earth: Why Complex Life is Uncommon in the Universe", by Peter Ward and Donald Brownlee. It discusses their theories of the beginning of life on Earth and additional theories to life on other planets. It challenges their research and data and offers other explanations and theories.
From the Paper "Was the occurrence of complex life on the planet Earth an isolated event or simply the next logical step in evolution? Ward and Brownlee seem to believe complex life is unique to our home world or at least extremely scarce in the Universe.1 In addition to the factors in their Rare Earth equation, mentioned in their book are some specific factors peculiar to Earth that may have affected the development of complex life. Beginning with the planet Mars, W&B argue that the fossil record shows that the cooling Earth developed bacterial life as soon as conditions permitted. They suggest that this may be because the bacteria first developed on Mars, which cooled earlier, and that perhaps Earth was then seeded with these bacteria carried by meteorites reaching our planet after having been ejected from Mars by asteroid impacts. The low gravity of Mars makes this more likely, and it is estimated that ten percent of meteors ejected from Mars may impact Earth. A system lacking a Mars-like planetary companion might have been slower to develop bacterial life."
Abstract This paper discusses the history of NASA from its beginnings and the political framework surrounding its genesis and the beginnings of the Space Race.
From the Paper "Since the beginning of time, man has been an avid explorer. From exploring his nearby surroundings to traveling to the other side of the world to journeying to the stars, man has been on the move constantly. Mankind is a species of risk takers and curious about all that surrounds him. Before man's decision to fly to the stars, one of the biggest eras of exploration was the navigation and exploration of the seas and the inner continents they found themselves upon. Through all of the explorations, it has taken the political and financial backing of the many nations that supported these explorers. And what was the purpose of these explorations beyond curiosity? It seems that the political will of the nations encouraged these explorers to discover and conquer faster than the next nation. It was and still is a matter of national pride; more often than not, it was also a matter of national security, whether real or imagined. The history of NASA reflects this ideal; that exploration isn't always done just for the sake of discovery."
Abstract This paper begins with a brief look at the history of the relationship between the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. It then discusses the roots of rocketry and the birth of modern rocket science. A discussion of the race between the two nations to put a human being into space during the 1960s follows.
From the Paper "The contest for space explodes into life within the saber rattling environment of the nuclear age. Near the end of the 1950s, the cold war had escalated to frightening proportions. Both countries maintained enormous stockpiles of nuclear and conventional weapons. The United States developed its deterrence based on long-range bombers. By 1955 the US Air Force had ?580 B52s, and 1500 B-47s,?(NASA) all 2080 aircraft capable of delivering nuclear weapons. In 1955, the United States Navy launched the world's first nuclear submarine. By 1960, the US had over 18,000 nuclear weapons in its arsenal, and developed the liquid fueled Atlas and Titan Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBM)."
Abstract This paper is introduces and discusses features of the Martian terrain suggesting that water, and possibly life, may have been present in the distant past or that water exists today under the planet's surface. Conclusions about this suggestion are made at the end of the paper.
From the Paper "The public's fascination and with the red planet originated with Percival Lowell's book, ?Mars,? published in 1895. Although Schiaparelli and others had discussed the possibility of Canals on Mars, Lowell's drawings and his suggestion of intelligent life on Mars thrilled the public."
Abstract This paper discusses how black holes are created. It studies the ideas of physicist John Mitchell, his discoveries and how Isaac Newton's physics ideas helped lead to his discoveries on black holes. It also covers white dwarfs (stellar corpses), the most famous being Sirius.
From the Paper "The black hole was first named by the English physicist John Mitchell in 1783, more than two hundred years ago. But what are these black holes? Do they really exist? Based on planet movement studies made by Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler, John Mitchell deduced the existence of a force that made the Sun, the Earth, the Moon and everything contained in the cosmos."
From the Paper "ne of mankind's great dreams is the discovery of other planetary systems and the ability to travel to them, and a first step in fulfilling this dream is the unmanned probe represented by the Voyager Interstellar Mission. This is a difficult mission by any measure. Voyager I was launched September 5, 1977, and after it has been speeding along for more than 20 years, it is now 6.8 billion miles away from Earth traveling at nearly 51,000 miles per hour. In cosmic terms, that is only about 10 light hours away. However, the closest star to Earth is Proxima Centauri, which is 4.3 light years, or 25 trillion miles, away. If Voyager were pointed in the right direction, it is calculated that it would take some 74,000 years to make the trip. However, effective interstellar missions must occur on a human time scale preferably within an individual's lifetime..."
From the Paper "Black Holes
Background
Many areas of astronomical research are inter related so that knowledge gained in one area causes a rethinking of other issues and provides evidence to solve old and new problems. One area of research that offers information useful to astronomers and physicists on many different issues is the search for black holes, an ongoing process that has been enhanced by the creation of the Hubble Space Telescope, and a central location for studying black holes is the Space Telescope Science Institute, the nerve center of the Hubble.
Black holes are theorized celestial bodies with a surface gravity so strong that nothing can escape from them, including light. If a star more massive than the Sun should undergo gravitational collapse at..."
Abstract This paper examines the discoveries of two famous men, Galilei Galileo and Charles Darwin, and compares the way in which their respective ideas were accepted in their ages of discovery. It discusses how Galileo's discovery of the telescope and subsequent proving of the solar system's existence, led him to be branded as a heretic. The paper shows how Charles Darwin's 19th Century book "On the Origin of Species" also caused him to be labeled a heretic, especially when he related his theory to the evolution of man. The paper shows how both Galileo and Darwin undermined the Catholic church and in the face of enormous obstacles, eventually led people to accept their theories.
From the Paper Galileo Galilei once said, " All truths are easy to understand once they are discovered; the point is to discover them." Contrary to his thoughts, however, all truths are not easy to understand, and some are even harder to sustain. Upon his development of the telescope in 1609 Galileo was able to present empirical evidence to prove Copernicus' heliocentric view of the solar system. Regardless of his evidence Galileo met the same fate as his precursor as his findings were cast aside and he was labeled as a heretic."
From the Paper " The purpose of this paper is to describe the origin, function, and dynamics of the sun, including sunspots and the solar cycle.
In order to describe the birth of the sun it is necessary to also discuss the origin of the universe and the formation of the solar system. For even though these happenings occurred billions of years apart, each one led to the formation of the other and they are all related. What makes this even more complicated is that throughout the history of man, there have been many theories concerning these astronomical occurrences, and there are still differing opinions among scientists. The most widely accepted and well-known opinions will be presented here."
Overview
Since the beginning of human history, there have been questions about where the "stuff" that composes our universe comes from. In cosmology, the study of the origin and evolution of the universe, theories are put forward to explain the known facts and assumptions about the stars and everything we know and sense.
There are "steady state" theories that propose that everything in the universe is pretty much the way it always has been. The steady state theory posits that the universe is contained within a "closed" system, and so the assumption could be made that the universe extends for a vast though finite distance in all directions. However, in 1823 a German cosmologist named Wilhelm Olbers asked the question, "Why is the sky dark at night?" Olbers ..."
Abstract This paper explains that by viewing the gas that surrounds stars as a dynamic atmosphere, undergoing cycles of materials similar to those that go on in the Earth's own protective gases, astronomers are understanding more and more about the processes involved in the formation of stars. The paper deals with the questions of how the supernova of massive stars affect the formation of stars in the future, why star formation seems to occur in relative bursts, and how long the Milky Way will continue to produce stars.
From the Paper "Beyond applying the atmospheric model to intergalactic gas, astronomers have also been studying more carefully exactly what components make up the gas and at what temperature these components exist. About 90% of the constituents of intergalactic atmosphere are various forms of hydrogen, with close to 10% being helium, and everything else, from lithium to uranium -- the whole spectrum of the periodic chart -- making up less than 0.1%. The majority of the hydrogen is present as neutral hydrogen, termed H I by astronomers. This form of hydrogen gas is identified by the spectral frequency of the light that it emits, namely 1,420 megahertz. Although scattered throughout the galaxy, the majority of H I is located around the galactic midplane, and forms a gaseous disk about 300 parsecs thick (Reynolds, 2002, p. 40)."
