Abstract The paper relates that, in 1930, the Lowell Observatory announced the discovery of the ninth planet, Pluto, but then, in 2006, the scientific community decided that Pluto would lose its status as a planet. The paper then explains that this decision was based on the scientific community's discovery that Pluto is more akin to the making of an asteroid than it is to a planet. The paper also looks at the opinion of people who think Pluto should still be a planet and posits that the many questions about Pluto will be answered when the New Horizons space satellite arrives at Pluto in 2015.
From the Paper "In 1930, the Lowell Observatory announced the discovery of a small planetary body beyond the planet Neptune (Gingerich, 2007, 137). It was named Pluto, following the suggestion of a young girl who thought that name was right because the first two letters incorporated the initials of the scientist for whom the Lowell Observatory was named for (Gingerich, 137). In hindsight, the rush to bestow planetary status on the tiny heavenly body was perhaps more a need for the Lowell Observatory to have a role in the discovery of something scientifically significant than in something that met the standards of scientific theory and research."
Abstract The paper refers to Tom Wolfe's "The Right Stuff", the non-fiction novel about the individuals and organizations responsible for launching America beyond the stratosphere of Earth. The paper explains the title 'The Right Stuff' as a catchall allusion to the indefinable combination of abilities, presentation and disposition expected of that exclusive class of pilot. The paper attempts to convey the set of qualities that was that rare intercession of fearlessness and brilliance which drives every great man forward.
From the Paper "In the 1960's, the American space program represented the pinnacle of military achievement, with those training to take human evolution to this next tier of awareness required to exhibit the best and most infallible of qualities. As Tom Wolfe reveals in The Right Stuff, his non-fiction novel about the individuals and organizations responsible for launching America beyond the stratosphere of Earth, the pilots being trained to take those first leaps into space were informed in their actions and motives by both the cultural demands of the highly bureaucratic world forming around the program and the extremely rigorous physical, intellectual and emotional prerequisites of forging ahead thusly. This complex tapestry of elusive qualities, found in different permutations in figures such as John Glenn, Alan Shepard and Chuck Yeager, is described variably throughout the novel as the 'right stuff.'"
Abstract This paper discusses the consensus reached by the International Astronomical Union in 2006 on the official definition of a planet, and the consequent reclassification of Pluto as a "dwarf planet." The writer explains what is known about Pluto today and describes the background to the controversy and the discoveries that led to the challenging of Pluto's status as a planet. Many scientists today still believe that Pluto is in fact a planet, and support a more expansive definition of what are called planets. The paper concludes that, as our knowledge of what constitutes planets continues to expand, Pluto may once again be considered a planet.
From the Paper "The recent controversy over Pluto's status as a planet reveals the fact that quite often, what seems like a scientific certainty is still quite contentious within the scientific community, when new discoveries are made through improved technology. In 1995, discoveries of large planets around other stars, plus new objects that are neither planet nor star, and free-floating objects in space that look like planets but do not orbit stars forced astronomers to reformulate definitions of what constituted a planet (Britt 2000). Extrasolar planets may originate as brown dwarf stars, lack light, and are even in some cases as large as Jupiter, yet they orbit stars like planets (Britt 2000). In defining whether these burnt-out brown dwarfs were planets in the early 90s were planets, the issue of Pluto's planetary status again came to the forefront of scientific debate."
Tags: comet, solar system, trans-Neptunian extrasolar, Kuiper Belt, asteroid universe orbit satellite
Abstract The paper outlines what science knows and does not yet know about the planet Venus and shows how while scientists know a great deal, they remain unaware of the more abstract implications of the planet's status.
Outline:
Introduction
What We Know
What We Don't Know
Conclusion
From the Paper "With the exception of perhaps Mars, more lore and mythology exists about the planet Venus than any of its solar system brothers and sisters. According to Ev Cochrane's book The Many Faces of Venus: The Planet Venus in Ancient Myth and Religion, "cultures everywhere assigned [Venus] a prominent role in their mythological traditions and religious rituals." In fact, Cochrane suggests that the ancient astronomers' observations about Venus should be compared with today's scientists' knowledge in order to make some startling discoveries about the history of the planet. Regardless of whether or not Cochrane's theory is correct, it illustrates the importance of the planet Venus in both mythic and scientific disciplines."
Abstract The paper discusses how the change from Aristotle's world view to Newton's ideas was slowed down by the religious backlash of the time and a lack of technology. The paper rhwn explains how the transition happened and relates that when the change occurred, it was perhaps the most dramatic shift in view that mankind has ever known. The paper points out that at the same time, every step along the way was logical and fit the standard scientific method almost perfectly.
From the Paper "The Aristotelian world view was unique when compared to previous views of the universe because "it furnished a complete physical description of the universe and the forces acting within the universe" (Hetherington 177). His cosmology was a coherent chain of thought that was "closely interwoven" (Hetherington 177) with his version of physics. While his view of the cosmos managed to maintain for around two millennia, it was purely philosophical and did not provide any quantitative basis on which to make predictions for various observed phenomena, such as the retrograde movement of planets. For this reason, Ptolemy's astronomical work must also be included in the discussion of the Aristotelian world view, despite its contradictions with Aristotle's claims."
Abstract The paper discusses the many incidents attributed to the Bermuda Triangle (BT) where ships and planes disappeared without a trace. The paper attempts to discover whether this vast area of ocean is really haunted by some cosmic force, or whether it is just a place in the ocean given to sudden violent storms, rough seas and erratic wind conditions. The paper looks at the evidence and offers an explanation, which maintains that the methane ice beneath the Bermuda Triangle may help to explain some of the disappearances.
Outline:
Introduction
Literature Review
Conclusion
From the Paper "It seems worthy to review of some of the claims about unusual events linked to the BT in terms of providing needed background. According to the Encyclopedia of the Unusual & Unexplained (EUU) strange events in the BT date back to the days of Christopher Columbus. In his first voyage from Europe to the New World, it has been reported that Columbus' compass readings "were askew" within the area now known as the BT. Also, Columbus and his crew were supposedly "confused by shallow areas of sea with no land nearby."
"Gaddis went on to turn his article into a book, Invisible Horizons: True Mysteries of the Sea in 1965. In Gaddis' book, according to EUU, he provided in-depth detail about nine incidents that remained mysteries at that time. When the National Geographic magazine carried a story about Gaddis' book, many newspapers began running stories about the triangle. Several things followed Gaddis' book that brought continuing attention to the triangle. A book called Limbo of the Lost (by John Wallace Spencer) came out in 1969 and a film documentary, The Devil's Triangle was released in 1971."
Abstract This paper discusses how one of the most important questions posed by astronomers and cosmologists revolves around exactly how the universe was created and how the original view that that universe is infinite with no beginning and no end has shown to be inaccurate. The paper examines the conception of the Big Bang which has forced scientists to view the creation of the universe as a finite phenomenon, possessing a history and a beginning. In addition, the paper looks at exactly what the Big Bang was and how it influenced the formation of galaxies, nebula and planets.
From the Paper "In the late 1970's, the study of the most elementary particles of matter became connected with the sciences of astronomy and cosmology, a good example being the "symbiotic relationship between cosmology and the study of elementary particle physics provided by the conjunction of high precision experiments" at the European Center for Nuclear Research in Geneva, Switzerland, and cosmological theories on nuclear reactions which occurred only seconds after the Big Bang (Sullivan 2004, p.167). These two approaches have revealed a myriad variety of an elemental particles known as neutrinos, "ghostly particles which interact so weakly with every other form of matter that they are extremely hard to detect," even though they pass through the bodies of every human being every single second (Sullivan 2004, p.168)."
Abstract This paper discusses the existence of the Star of Bethlehem and examines what the Star of Bethlehem was. The paper also identifies and discusses the first reference to the Star of Bethlehem in the New Testament of the Bible. Specifically discussed by the paper is the debate of whether the Star of Bethlehem was a myth or if there is conclusive evidence for its existence.
Table of Contents:
Did the Star of Bethlehem Exist?
What are Possible Explanations for the Star of Bethlehem?
Did Saint Matthew Create This Myth for the Birth of Jesus?
Is there Conclusive Evidence Identifying the Star of Bethlehem?
From the Paper "In conclusion, there is no evidence that signifies conclusively that the Star of Bethlehem actually existed because these are all merely theories from which astronomers and historians alike justified that the Star of Bethlehem existed when Jesus Christ was born. All historians and astronomers have at this point are fascinating speculations and theories like those by Molnar as well as the many other authors and scientists who have attempted to uncover the mystery surrounding the Star of Bethlehem. Perhaps the mystery about the Star of Bethlehem will never be completely solved, but it is the mystery itself that drives us to find a solution."
Abstract This paper contrasts the weather on Mars and Venus with the weather on Earth. The paper first reveals that Mars is a desert planet of extremes that can be exceedingly cold and enormously windy, while Venus is a planet covered in clouds and extremely hot. The paper then relates that, while both planets have several weather-related events that are quite similar to Earth, there are major differences, as well. The paper believes that eventually, scientists may discover a way for humans to survive, or at least visit, these remarkable planets that are "right next door."
From the Paper "Mars weather resembles the Earth's weather in many respects. Clouds form on the planet on occasion, and they are usually made up of ice crystals or carbon dioxide. The ice crystals come from Mars polar ice caps, but since Mars is a desert, it seems that these ice crystals rarely fall back to the planet in the form of rain. Storms are also quite common on Mars, and there have even been sightings and photographs of cyclones and other major storm disturbances on the planet, just as we have here on Earth."
Abstract The paper relates that stars are born, live their stellar lives and then die. The paper then discusses how "protostars" can evolve into high-mass stars, intermediate mass stars and low-mass stars and when they finally stop burning, they die and form white, black, brown or red dwarfs. The paper concludes that while we know much about stars, we still do not know enough.
From the Paper "Stars twinkle and shine pretty in the night sky but they are actually complicated heavenly bodies. They are like us in that they are born, live their stellar lives, and then die. The early phases of a star's life begins when an "early phase of gravitational collapse," (Dasch) forms a "stellar embryo" (Dasch). Gas falls into the embryo, heating it up and when the embryo becomes warm enough, it begins resisting gravity. At this point, the embryo is called a "protostar" (Dasch). Grace Wolf-Chase maintains that this gas is "vast agglomerations of gas and dust" (Chase). Some of matter around the protostar begins to accumulate in a disk shape, rotating around it. Forces of gravity cause the disk to pick up speed and move toward the center. However, the gas and dust must slow down in order to fall onto the protostar."
Abstract This paper provides a history of the Hubble Space Telescope. The paper first notes that the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) was named after the astronomer Edwin Hubble and that it is presently in orbit around the Earth, just outside the planet's atmosphere, providing a great advantage over telescopes that are based on the surface. The paper then looks at how the Hubble was launched in 1990 and has grown to be one of the more valuable astronomical instruments in history. In addition, the paper looks at how breakthroughs in astrophysics have been made with the assistance of the increased abilities allowed with the HST.
Outline:
Introduction
Conception, Design, and Aims
Proposals and Funding
Engineering and Construction
Support from Earth
New Instruments and Servicing Missions
Servicing Missions 1, 2, 3A, and 3B
Scientific Results and Data
Astronomical Impact
Transmission to Earth
Use of the Telescope
Scheduling Observations
Observations by Amateur Astronomers
Conclusion
From the Paper "In 1983, a struggle for power between NASA and the entire scientific community led to the establishment of the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI). Run by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA), the STScI is located on the Johns Hopkins University campus in Baltimore, Maryland. The STScI has the primary responsibility of operating the telescope and delivering data to the astronomy community. Engineering support is located nearby, just south of the STScI, in Greenbelt at the GSFC under NASA's management. Since it was launched, the HST operation has been monitored on a twenty-four hour basis, seven days per week by four separate teams of controllers referred to as Hubble's Flight Operations Team (Hubble Space Telescope, 2007)."
Abstract In this paper, the writer examines how Crane's "Mercator" details how Mercator as an individual was inspired to take on the prodigious task of the formation of the cosmography that yielded the birth of the Atlas as well as the birth of the globe. The writer discusses Crane's treatment of the environment in which Mercator grew up, and how he was inspired to take on such a prodigious task. The writer also touches upon Mercator's 36,000 word treatise called "On The Creation and Fabric of the World' and asserts that it is perhaps the farthest reaching global vision that mankind has ever seen. The writer concludes that Mercator was a global thinker who personified the means by which the human rational mind was capable of seeing the globe.
From the Paper "In a time of exploration and new scientific frontiers that were to shape the modern world, Mercator (1512-94) had the ultimate global vision. He thought of all things at a global level, and his global vision was to spur the massive project that we has to undertake, the cosmography, that yielded the birth of the Atlas, as well as the birth of the globe. His intrinsic ability to see things at a global, collective level, viewing and organizing the aspects of existence as interrelated and conforming to an order, was the earliest manifestation of perhaps the most fundamental aspect of the global mentality which has become increasingly relevant to society."
Abstract This paper outlines Sir Isaac Newton's background and his achievements in alchemy, chemistry, theology, physics and mathematics as well as the crowning achievement of his work "Principia". The paper posits that Newton's greatest legacy is that scientists and mathematicians work with his laws and theories everyday.
From the Paper "Although his father died three months before Isaac was born and his mother wanted him home to farm and manage her estate, his uncle, William Ayscough, convinced his mother that Isaac would do much better as a scholar, so he sent Isaac to the Free Grammar School in Grantham in 1660 (Westfall 55). It was at this introduction to education that Isaac showed a potential passion for learning. Having met with the headmaster of the school, Isaac was able to convince his mother to send him to a university where he could continue his education (Hall 7). Ironically born in the same year that Galileo died, Newton would go on to distinguish himself as one of the most influential scientist to ever live having laid the foundations for future work in mathematics, optics, and physics."
Abstract This paper discusses how one of the most highly-researched and developing theory of the present day as to the makeup of the universe is the string theory; a theory that attempts to link together the four fundamental forces that rule the interactions of matter - in turn, possibly creating a better explanation of what our universe consists of. The paper attempts to create a better understanding about the string theory along with other proven facts about astronomy (such as stars, black holes, or certain forces in order to have a clearer understanding of what our universe is really made of.
From the Paper "The Andromeda constellation is of special interest, as it contains the Andromeda Galaxy which is the spiral galaxy nearest to earth, approximately 2.5 million light years away, and it can even be seen with the naked eye ("Andromeda Galaxy," 2008). Though previous estimates of Andromeda's size ranged from 70,000 to 120,000 light years across, recent viewing with a Keck telescope now gives a new estimate of 200,000 light years in diameter which is twice the size of the Milky Way ("Andromeda Galaxy," 2008). The Andromeda Galaxy contains a few hundred billion stars and many of them are similar in properties to our galaxy, the Milky Way, as well as hundreds of clusters (Hodge, 2008). Between the stars and clusters is gas; where the gas is dense enough it condenses into new stars, otherwise the gas is mainly weak and is mostly atomic hydrogen (Hodge, 2008). There are also areas of dust both between stars and throughout the disk of the galaxy (Hodge, 2008). "
