Abstract The paper provides a detailed biography of Isaac Newton, including his major accomplishments and their impact on society. The paper discusses how he revolutionized science, physics and celestial mechanics. The paper relates that he has proved to be one of the greatest scientists of all times.
From the Paper "Isaac Newton is recorded as being born on Christmas day in the year of 1642, though with our current Gregorian calendar, which was not adopted in England until 1752, his birthday would be January 4th of 1643. Newton was born in Lincolnshire at the Hamlet of Woolsthorpe, a manor house near Grantham. Newton was born prematurely and therefore was a small child. Newton was named after his father, Isaac Newton. Newton's father, an ill-educated farmer who owned property (which made him wealthy) but could not sign his own name, was a sickly man. He died three months before his son was born, in October 1642."
Abstract In this article, the writer notes that the solar system is a unique combination of many different types of planets, which has many different things that it can offer to humans. However, the the writer points out, planet Earth offers the most beneficial climate and diversity for human life. The writer notes that many of the other planets are entirely devoid of life. The writer discusses that despite the fact that there are eight planets in our solar system, only Mars (other than Earth) seems to be capable of containing human life at all. The writer maintains that Mars has many of the requisites that are needed to sustain human life, such as the possibility of water, small amounts of oxygen, and a possibility of life. The writer concludes that if humans were to ever colonize another planet in the solar system, Mars would be the most intelligent choice.
From the Paper "Apart from the cold at its poles (which is far more extreme than Earth's), Mercury shares very little in common with Earth. It would be very difficult for humans to inhabit Mercury. The temperature extremes, the lack of water, and the lack of a protective atmosphere would quickly decimate human life attempting to live there. Current space craft could succeed in landing humans on Mercury, but it is unlikely that there would be a way to maintain proper oxygen levels for survival.
"Venus is another planet that is very inhospitable. Yet, for several reasons, it is known as the sister planet to Earth: Venus is similar to Earth's size (95% its diameter, 80% of its mass. Both planets do not have many craters, which points to young surfaces."
Tags: solar, system, temperature, conditions, human, life
Abstract This paper discusses the exotic objects in modern astronomy known as wormholes. It describes the theoretical proof for the existence of the wormholes and shows how it is connected with the theoretical analysis of black holes. The paper also discusses the important developments in the theory of wormholes that have been made over time. Finally, the paper briefly looks at the possibilities that the theoretical prediction of wormholes has raised in science.
From the Paper "Among these exotic objects are wormholes. Wormholes are the result of the theoretical speculation derived from analysis of Einstein's general theory of relativity. (Kaku, 2005; Holman et al., 1997) So far nobody was successful in observing such an object or proving its existence in any other way. They can be understood as the tunnels that connect two points in space-time in such a way that the travel between the two points might take less time than the travel through the normal space. Like a real tunnel they have two "mouths" connected by a "throat" (Holman et al. 1997). Theoretical predictions of wormhole existence raised many possibilities, which include travel in time (both in the past and in the future), entry to the parallel universes allowed by modern inflation theory etc. These are the center of both scientific and philosophical speculations. (Hawking, 1996)"
Abstract This paper describes the history of human observation of Mars, as well as the modern system of exploration and observation. The paper goes on to establish promotions and objections of future human development of Mars, as it would be accomplished through a process of terraforming.
Outline:
Physical Characteristics
History of Observation of Mars
Modern Martian Exploration
The 'Life on Mars' Debate
The Moons of Mars
Martian Geology
Terraforming Mars
From the Paper "Mars, Ares, Tiw, the god of war; the red planet has been revered as the bringer or bloodshed with its red color in the sky, like the color of blood. The planet adjacent to Earth has been an object of mystery and wonder from the time the first human turned his head skyward, to the time when the first telescope was used to observe Mars and its mysterious "canals," to the present day, as humans continue to send spacecraft to the red planet to expand on existing knowledge."
Abstract In this article, the writer notes that one of the more curious unexplained phenomena of our age is the continuous sightings of unidentified flying objects. The writer points out that unidentified flying objects (UFOs) have been sighted since ancient times and are still sighted each day. Some believe that the UFO phenomenon has something to do with everything from the pyramids to the beginning of life on this planet. Others insist that the entire idea is ludicrous and every sighting can be explained as either a hoax or as a result of "natural" causes. The writer discusses what actually classifies as a UFO and notes that one way of looking at this is to classify UFOs as anything that takes flight that is unidentifiable at the time. The writer maintains that the problem remains that numerous sightings do not fall into these categories and remain in the realm of the unexplained.
From the Paper "Like many in the private sector, the government sightings are far from all being the same. On February 15th, 1965, a United States Air Force captain stared upward into the sky and, to his amazement, saw three enormous, oval-shaped objects. In 1953, while running the initial tests on a new tracking device, US Air Force operators were astonished to pick up a gigantic object orbiting near the equator. Some type of huge, unknown object was circling the Earth some six hundred miles out. Another, this sighting on May 5th, 1954, depicts a military that is not sure what they are dealing with ..."
Abstract This paper explains that stars have a life cycle that is simply too long for human life to perceive directly and even too long for all of human history to record. The author points out that astronomers have been able to categorize stars to show the different levels of development reached by different groups of stars. The paper relates that, over billions of years, the star slowly contracts, compensating for the heat and light energy it has lost. The author underscores that, as this contraction continues, the temperature, density and pressure at the core of the star increases. The paper tells that, as the temperature at the core rises and the star contracts, the tension between gravity pulling in and gas pressure pushing out determines the life of the star. The author describes this process through the star's life cycle from protostar to black holes.
From the Paper "At this stage, the star is called a planetary nebula. The core of this star becomes a whiter dwarf, an extremely dense star now the size of a planet. Once the white dwarf uses all its energy, it stops shining and becomes a "black dwarf," or a dead star. Astronomers see this as the final stage for our own Sun. however, for stars with higher masses than the Sun (up to about 40 times greater), the outer layers of the star may be thrown off with much more force in a supernova, an explosion leading to the collapse of the star down to a very compact size, producing what is known as a "neutron star."
Tags: protostar, black holes, white dwarf, infrared satellites, supernova
Abstract This paper examines how the intense interaction between science and religion in the 17th century had an ultimately positive effect on human civilization over the succeeding centuries. The paper explains that these interactions produced played an instrumental role in generating the Enlightenment of the 18th century, which transformed the world, freed humanity from the bonds of religious dogma, and produced long-term benefits ranging from greatly expanded scientific learning to the dramatic emergence and development of democratic systems of government. The paper then points out that religion and science also clashed in the 17th century because they offered incompatible answers to humanity's existence, to the functioning of the universe, and to humanity's place in it. In the context of this discussion, the paper briefly examines the works of philosophers and scientists like Nicolas Copernicus, Johannes Kepler, Galileo and Tycho Brahe.
From the Paper "After lengthy observations and calculations, Kepler eventually discovered that although Copernicus had correctly concluded that the planets of the solar system all orbited around the sun, he had been mistaken in assuming that planetary orbits were circular instead of elliptical. The most positive contribution of Copernicus was his theory that the earth rotates each day on its axis, that it revolves on an annual basis around the sun, and that other planets also revolve around the sun. Yet as revolutionary as this theory was, it was not proven to be true until Galileo observed the heavens and made some startling discoveries that provided that proof."
Tags: modern, world, physics, revolution, Enlightenment, church
Abstract This paper explains that the search for life beyond this planet must be built on a solid understanding of how life managed to emerge on Earth. The author examines the development of extraterrestrial theories about the origins of life by beginning with an examination of previous theories of origin. The paper then presents current research and the empirical basis for current theories with implications for the search for extraterrestrial life. The author also offers some possible avenues of future research and examination, which could help refine the understanding of the origins of life in the universe.
From the Paper "In fact, the presence of a liquid like water seems to be the only major prerequisite for the development of life. Without a liquid, the complex chemical reactions required for the emergence of life are presumed impossible. But, that's not to say that the liquid in question must be water. Many researchers are exploring the possibility of life developing in more unorthodox liquids, such as methane, ammonia, or even sulfuric acid. Life on earth may have simply developed to take advantage of the very abundant liquid water; water's presence may have only been happenstance."
Abstract The paper discusses the observations and discoveries of physicist and astronomer, Galilei Galileo. The paper also compares his observations to those of other famous atronomers such as Johannes Keplar, Ptolemy and Copernicus.
From the Paper "Interestingly, the sort of heresy that Galileo was convicted of was just the sort of observational assertion that Luther had already predicted the Catholic Church would have trouble with, based upon the fact that they held rationalistic interpretations of the Bible in greater esteem than empirical conclusions arrived at through careful examination. In other words, the Church, by hoarding all of the power to make reforms and philosophical claims about the world, had made itself vulnerable to catastrophic failure once competing worldviews were introduced. Essentially, so much had been built upon the rationalistic claims asserted by the Catholic Church for more than one thousand years, that empirical knowledge was likely to soon begin to contradict dogma. Of course, this did occur quite publicly when Galileo argued in favor of the Copernican, heliocentric model of the solar system. Yet, it would seem, the rationalistic way of perceiving the universe was far more flexible than Luther had initially suspected. Galileo, on the other hand, grasped the philosophical wiggle-room rationalism affords anyone who is willing to accept claims about the world based upon faith."
Abstract The paper discusses how Carl Sagan revolutionized how the world looked at space and the search for intelligent life beyond our planet. The paper talks about Sagan's popular PBS television series "Cosmos" and his novel "Billions and Billions", specifically focusing on the chapters on abortion, religion and science.
From the Paper "Born in 1934, Sagan grew up in a working-class Jewish neighborhood of New York and attended urban public schools in New York and New Jersey. The University of Chicago provided him scholarship support when he entered in 1951, and he continued there for graduate work, receiving his doctorate in astronomy in 1960. After two years as a postdoctoral in biology at Berkeley and Stanford, he joined the Harvard College astronomy faculty as Assistant Professor until 1968 and then moved to Cornell University to become Professor of Astronomy and Director of the Laboratory for Planetary studies."
Abstract This paper discusses the life and discoveries of Galileo. It specifically discusses the conflict of Galileo's discoveries with the Catholic Church. It looks at his work in the sciences of astronomy, physics and mathematics and his adoption of the Copernican astronomical theory. The paper also looks at the Catholic Church's reactions to his views.
From the Paper "In the end, Galileo forever changed the the sciences of astronomy, physics and mathematics. Despite the attempts by the Church to silence his revolutionary work, Galileo continued. His work, was evaluated and validated by observers across Europe, in England, German and France. And, it would be Galileo's work that would encourage experimentation in physics, to test mathematical and physical laws. Sadly, it wouldn't be until more than 300 years later that the Church would recant their views, with Cardinal Paul Poupard, the head of an investigation by the church into Galileo's theory, statement in 1992 that said, "We today know that Galileo was right in adopting the Copernican astronomical theory" (qtd. Brauchli )."
Abstract This is a technical work where the author discusses new, cutting edge technologies and their possible application for interplanetary communication. Specifically, the author refers to broadband communications technologies and the recent development of nanowire technology that enables the construction of microscopically thin cables, which, because of their extreme sensitivity and the great distance of interplanetary space, hold great potential for the development of new communication devices and technologies.
Table of ontents:
Introduction
Issues Facing Interplanetary Communication
Optical Communications Instead of RF Transmissions
Designing an Effective Photo-Detector
The Advances Possible with Nanowires
Conclusion
Works Cited
From the Paper "The design of the MIT photo-detector is relatively simple from an engineering standpoint (see Appendix for diagram of the photo-detector). This is especially true considering the high degree of efficiency it is capable of producing. Of course, the simplicity of the design belies the significant calibration the device requires: the nanowire must be cooled to almost absolute zero, the glass gap of the photon trap must be a very specific function of the wavelength of incoming photons, and the use of an anti-reflective coating on the surface of the device is critical. The design consists of a photon trap with a nanowire detector followed by a gap of glass, and then a mirrored surface. The nanowire is wrapped in a tight coil in order to maximize its absorption of incoming photons, and the nanowire is cooled to close to absolute zero, three degree Kelvin to be precise, which transforms the nanowire into a very small superconductor. As a superconductor, the nanowire responds in specific ways to photons that impact the nanowire allowing for detection."
Abstract The paper discusses Jocelyn Bell Burnell's significant discovery of pulsars and neuron stars and contends that women in all fields of science owe gratitude to Bell Burnell for beginning to break down barriers between the genders. The paper asserts that she is an inspiration for all women in that she did not let her gender hold her back from what she wanted to do.
From the Paper "Jocelyn Bell Burnell was born in Belfast on July 15, 1943. Her interest in astronomy sparked early in that it was her father who constructed the Armagh Observatory near her home. She attended Mount School in York, Great Britain and then took her studies to the University of Glasgow in Scotland. In 1965, she graduated with a Bachelor of Science and went on the Cambridge University to study under Antony Hewish. Her first two years were spent aiding in the construction of a radio telescope that would find and record radio signals. In addition to this, Bell Burnell studied newly discovered quasars, which are galaxy-size clusters of stars or star formations that appear to as single stars because they are so far away from Earth."
Abstract This paper discusses how the Earth compared to the sun, its moon, and the nine planets in its solar system is extremely unique. Not only does it have unique surface features, but its weather, atmosphere, and size is original when compared to other bodies in space. Then, through an examination of the different properties of the other celestial bodies, the paper also attempts to show how the Earth has similarities to the nine planets when describing how the planets and their atmospheres were formed.
From the Paper "The Earth is the third planet from the Sun being about 93 million miles from the Sun and in one planetary year circles the Sun 365 days of 24 hours each. Its diameter is 7,926 miles and has one moon. Earth is the densest planet in our solar system. It has an iron core, a mantle, and crust with an atmosphere made up of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 1% other gases. The temperature of Earth ranges from -127 degrees Fahrenheit, recorded in Antarctica, to 136 degrees Fahrenheit, recorded in Africa. The surface features of Earth consist of mountains, faults, volcanoes, cliffs, oceans, rivers, and ice caps. The hydrosphere is the water on or near the Earth's surface. The Earth is unique among the planets because 70% of its surface is covered by oceans. The main difference between Earth and other planets is its ability to support life. Vegetation and organisms are prominent all over the globe. This is possible because of the climate, atmosphere, and general living conditions. "
Abstract This paper briefly discusses how, when Neil Armstrong took his "one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind" on July 21, 1969, he seized the world's imagination and thrust it into a wondrous new era of space exploration, giving America the morality boost it needed to obtain victory in the Cold War.
From the Paper "On the day of the landing, over five-hundred million people all around the world watched as the astronauts took their first steps on the moon. The enormous milestone inspired a generation of cult-like followers, all obsessed with The Final Frontier. As NASA's Chief Historian Stephen J. Dick recalls "Prior to 1969, America's youth aspired to be firefighters or policemen; after Apollo 11, kids came into the kitchen saying "Mama, I'm gonna be an astronaut!" (Dick). Business leaders took strong notice to the space craze and began marketing their products towards its fans. Astronauts began gracing lunchboxes and the space drink Tang became an instant hit. Sales of space-related items quadrupled in the year following the lunar landing (Martin 106). It seemed nothing could stop this new movement--the space fad snowballed into an entity that endures to this day. Few can resist the magic associated with outer space."
Tags: cold, war, apollo, 11, nasa, space, exploration
