Abstract This paper discusses the physiological changes to the human body during space travel. Early predictions of the response of humans to spaceflight assumed that space adaptation would be analogous to human disease processes rather than to normal physiology. Through studies of bed-rested healthy adults and medical examinations of crews returning from space, we now recognize the adaptive nature of the responses to spaceflight or its ground-based models. e are also aware of the necessity to minimize the flight-induced changes so that crews maintain their Earth-readiness and avoid injury on landing. Lack of gravitational loading affects multiple physiological systems, especially support structures that are particularly vulnerable to injury during reentry and renewed exposure to gravitational forces. Thus, most crew members exercise extensively during flight. Although many physiological systems appear to be affected by spaceflight, only the cardiovascular, neurovestibular, and musculoskeletal systems are covered in this paper.
The paper includes illustrations.
Table of Contents
Table of Illustrations
Introduction
The Cardiovascular System
The Neurovestibular System
The Musculoskeletal System
Summary
Bibliography
From the Paper "As soon as they switch to an internal alignment and use the feet to signal down, they are able to function normally. Upon return to Earth, the brain is confused once again as gravity is now available for orientation. This confusion creates postural instability that is compounded with the cardiovascular difficulty in standing. Also, reflexes associated with posture are slowed even on short-duration missions. With long-duration flights, changes in reflexes may become a major issue."
Abstract This paper explains that the Navstar Global Positioning System (GPS), created in 1973 by the United States of America's Department of Defense and now operated by the U.S. Air Force, is a highly effective way to calculate, by using twenty-four space satellites in six different orbits, the exact location of a point on the earth. The author points out that, although the GPS was first invented and used mainly by the military, it is now used for nonmilitary applications from routing police and fire trucks on 911 emergency calls to finding directions for private automobile drivers. The paper relates that, over the past ten years, the price has decreased by up to 20 percent each year and continues to drop as the merchandise becomes more and more precise.
From the Paper "In 1978, when the first round of satellites were launched, the results were less than perfect, but today the system works the exact same way with almost terrifying accuracy. Even though the results have improved, the concept is the same. GPS, which is comparable to GLONASS, a similar system developed by the Soviet Union, is made up of three segments: the space, user, and control segments. The space segment, as previously stated, consists of twenty-four satellites (3 spares) that are located 20, 190 kilometers above the earth's surface in six orbital planes that cover the sphere of the earth evenly. They orbit in 12 hours; providing every place on earth with visibility to at least the four necessary satellites for the system to work. Also, for the polar areas to be viewed completely, the satellites are at a 55? angle to the equator."
Abstract This paper addresses several theories addressing why Earth has experienced increases in its global temperature over the years. This phenomenon is also known as global warming. It focuses on the studies of Milutin Milankovitch, who proposed a theory of planetary motion that attempted to explain the Earth's periods of warming and cooling.
From the Paper "Global warming is one of today's most pressing issues. Though some dispute its existence, the great majority of individuals ? scientists and lay people ? do believe that the Earth is undergoing an unnatural warming. Hot summers, freak storms, melting glaciers, and other signs all seem to point toward a shift in the kind of weather enjoyed by many regions of the globe. Much of this change has occurred suddenly and rapidly, over the course of the last generation or so. Scientists know that there have been periods of climatic change in the Earth's past. The fossil and geological records bear witness to these fluctuations. Areas of the world that are today desert were once lush grasslands. Regions now frozen in the grip of perpetual winter were at one time home to tropical rainforests. Seas were to be found where at the present time there is only dry land. Various animal species came and went as the environments to which they had been adapted disappeared. Perhaps most graphic of all the great climatic changes to which the Earth has been subjected during its long history, were the series of ice ages that covered much of the globe in glaciers. Vast sections of Canada, the United States, Europe and Asia were buried beneath miles of ice and snow, the home of specially-adapted animals such as the wooly mammoth and rhinoceros. These great ice sheets retreated only in the geologically recent past. The planet warmed up again only a few thousand years before human beings first began to plant crops and to build cities. As well, there have been minor fluctuations in temperature over the past several millennia. It was a few degrees warmer during much of the Middle Ages, and a few degrees cooler than it is today for the ensuing five centuries or so. But what most disturbs today's scientists, environmentalists, and politicians, are the sudden changes of the past third of a century. Are we humans at fault? Are the greenhouse gases emitted by our cars and factories are rapidly smothering the Earth? Or is it the fault of the Earth itself ? the result of fluctuations in the planet's motions and orbit, as hypothesized by the great Serbian scientist Milutin Milankovitch?"
Abstract This paper discusses the earth's geothermal energy. The paper contends that geothermal energy cannot be trusted to supply all of the world's energy needs as there are simply not enough geothermal reservoirs near the surface of the earth. The paper explores the optimism expressed by some geologists who believe that, as drilling technology improves, humans will be able to reach enough geothermal reservoirs to accommodate a large percentage of the world's energy demands.
From the Paper "The earth formed approximately 4.5 billion years ago. Our planet's geothermal heat originates from the energetic remnants of that coalescence. Over time, the interior of the earth ?became differentiated into several distinct compositional zones: a large, iron rich core; a thick surrounding mantle; and at the surface, a thin, low density crust.? (Montgomery 10). This fact contributed to a number of important attributes of the earth, including the formation of the atmosphere?which came into existence thanks to gases escaping from the hot interior."
Abstract This paper discusses how, in order to keep the shuttle program an effective vehicle for space exploration, safety of the astronauts must always be the first concern. It explains how deadlines must always be flexible and based on the ability of NASA to make a launch that is as safe as possible. It also discusses how final votes on decisions must be made anonymously to eliminate the influence of group pressure for a goal inappropriate for such a risky endeavor.
From the Paper "The Rodgers Commission, in addition to making numerous suggestions about how to improve the structure of shuttles and ways to increase safety for the astronauts, noted the management decisions that contributed so significantly to the disaster. They particularly noted that decision makers were under considerable pressure to maintain ambitious flight schedules (Harwood, 1986). This pressure stemmed from both political and economic forces. NASA will have to decide whether its goals are one of scientific inquiry or of making money through space exploration. When it is recognized that these two goals are incompatible, they will have to be prioritized. Given the inherently danger to space exploration, it will be clear that safety, based on the best science available, will have to be the overriding concern. In decision meetings, the structural dynamic must support real inquiry, not simply support a predetermined and preferred outcome."
Abstract This paper begins with a discussion about the astronomer who first identified Halley's comet, Edmond Halley, and how he was able to make his observations and identification of the comet. The paper then continues with a look at when Haley's comet was first observed and photographed, a look at how long the comet has been in existence, and a brief discussion of NASA's involvement in studying the comet. The paper concludes with a description of the comet's appearance, composition, density, and orbit.
From the Paper "A comet is " a small celestial body consisting mostly of dust and gases that moves in an elongated elliptical or nearly parabolic orbit around the sun" (Encyclopedia.com). Comets are rarely visible from the earth, but when they can be seen, their visibility can last anywhere from a few days to a few months (Columbia Encyclopedia). Most comets are invisible to us on earth except when they are near the sun and comets are usually only visible at sunrise or sunset. There have been many comets discovered by astronomers throughout time, but the most well known is "Halley's Comet", also known as Comet Halley."
Abstract This paper examines the implications, relevance, and significance that the current, best theories in physics and cosmology have for the understanding of our lives and our place in the world. In particular, it seeks to determine what our best theories in physics and cosmology, including relativity theory, quantum theory, and big bang cosmology, imply about the nature of the physical world and about the nature of our selves. An overview of these best theories is followed by an analysis of their implications, relevance, and significance today, followed by a summary of the research in the conclusion.
From the Paper "According to Bergmann (2004), the general theory of relativity was developed in response to the need to extend the new space and time concepts of the special theory of relativity from the domain of electric and magnetic phenomena to all of physics and, particularly, to the theory of gravitation. Because space and time relations are the foundation of all physical phenomena, researchers recognized the inherent constraints in applying mutually contradictory concepts of space and time to explain different types of interactions, particularly in view of the fact that the same particles may interact with each other in several different ways-electromagnetically, gravitationally, and through the so-called nuclear forces (Bergmann 2004)."
Abstract This paper explains the history of NASA, starting with the Kennedy administration. It briefly explains the 'firsts' of space exploration: Apollo and Skylab. The writer then discusses the disasters of NASA: Challenger, Columbia, and some Mars missions. It looks at the accomplishments of NASA with technology and at home and ends with the future of NASA with George Bush's Space Boost plan and a conclusion.
From the Paper "Human curiosity about space has been with man as far back as we can go. Native Americans made names for the constellations. Greece created Gods from them. The technology to get to space was just created in the past fifty years. Some consider Americans lucky to live in a nation, where man can touch the surface of the moon. This feat is mostly thanks to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), and their advancements. However, recent polls have shown that interest for NASA is down the list of people's concerns, below crime, energy, and the environment for example. Interest has changed since the Kennedy administration, where shortly after, twelve men walked on the moon in a three and a half year period. NASA is still making advancements, however, in the areas of science, math, astrology, and it's new findings in space. Nevertheless, the public remembers Columbia and Challenger. They also know about the millions of tax dollars being spent each year. Because of this, does NASA have a future? Will it still be around in twenty years? Will our children and their children, still dream of becoming astronauts?"
Abstract This paper examines how the Mars Habitat Control and Monitoring System makes use of robotic, simulation technology to gather data regarding Mars and also understands how the human frame and functions might interact with the planet's circumstances.
Outline
Introduction
Description of the System
Data Acquisition and Storage
Graphical User Interface (GUI)
Notification Service
Conclusion
From the Paper "The current simulation system also retrieves data regarding the planet, not only as it pertains to human life in the future, but about the systems existing upon Mars in general. Currently, the Mars system has a library retrieval system with remote access. The drives in the system that are organized into data banks. These drives contain sensors. The sensors are striped across all the drives in so that lost data can be retrieved using algorithms. The use of such functions increases the reliability of the system and also allows for owner-specified identification. Also, with its built-in security system, a user, after displaying identification, can obtain information on particular tapes."
Abstract This paper examines the creation mythology evident in the book of Genesis and compares it to one of the oldest Japanese myths about creation from "Genji Shibukawa: Tales from the Kojiki compiled in 712 CE" by O No Yasumaro. The paper draws on the similarities between the two stories of the creation of the universe.
From the Paper "A culture's belief about the beginning of the world is called a creation myth, story or tale. An explanation of the origin of the universe is known as a cosmogony. It is difficult to find any people throughout the world who do not have some explanation for the source of life. One of the most interesting aspects of creation mythology is the similarities that exist among descriptions, whether they are from the Judeo/Christian Bible or from African, Native American, South American, Greek, Japanese or Australian cultures. Common themes are present in both the West and East. From the earliest humans, who painted on the walls of their cave, there has been a need to search for answers and explain the unknown."
Abstract This paper examines looks at by James E Lovelock's Gaia hypothesis whose premise is that the entire planet evolves over time because of the interaction of living things with their surrounding environment. It describes the hypothesis in some detail and provides background information. This is followed by a discussion contrasting Lovelock's claims with those of his critics and proffers an approach toward reconciliation.
From the Paper "Earth's atmosphere is not in a state of chemical equilibrium. It is full of gases that have an affinity for each other. Oxygen, nitrogen, and methane exist in sizable quantities, and left to their own devices, would quickly interact to form a new atmosphere of inert gases, very much like Mars' atmosphere (Margulis and Lovelock, p. 13(2)). So the persistent presence of uncombined methane, nitrogen, and oxygen in the atmosphere is strong evidence that something is replenishing these gases as fast as they naturally interact."
Abstract This paper briefly describes the functions of the moon. It looks at the magnetic forces and fields and how these impact the solar system. It also discusses the history of the development of knowledge that scientists have about the moon.
From the Paper "The lunar crust is composed of a variety of primary elements, including uranium, thorium, potassium, oxygen, silicon, magnesium, iron, titanium, calcium, aluminum and hydrogen (Korotev, 2004). When bombarded by cosmic rays, each element bounces back into space its own radiation, in the form of gamma rays. Some elements, such as uranium, thorium and potassium, are radioactive and emit gamma rays on their own. However, regardless of what causes them, gamma rays for each element are all different from one another - each produces a unique spectral "signature", detectable by a spectrometer."
Abstract This paper presents a report on Philip Taubman's book, "Eisenhower, the CIA, Hidden Story of America's Space Espionage" which gives a view into the leaders', policy makers' and engineers perspectives' of the American space espionage in its infancy.
Paper Outline:
Introduction
Eisenhower's Perspective
The CIA's Perspective
Space Age Spying's First Controversy
The Scientist's, Engineer's and Analyst's Perspective
The Terrorism Angle
From the Paper "This book demands a greater respect for the Central Intelligence Agency. Even in today's intelligence community, many professionals (at least those in military intelligence) are unaware that the CIA was responsible for developing the high-altitude aircraft and satellite imaging systems that they use in their jobs every day. Mr. Taubman's book helps the reader to understand President Eisenhower's participation and endorsement for the development of these reconnaissance craft, and how he overcame various obstructs due to competition between the military services, Congressional budget bickering, and the easily impressionable perspectives of the American people."
Abstract This paper covers Hubble's time and place in his scientific era, a compact biography and a brief explanation of his scientific achievements. It looks at how he discovered that there are more galaxies than just the Milky Way and how he tackled two of the most fundamental questions about the universe, its age and size.
From the Paper "Born in 1889, Edwin Hubble grew to be a very "large mass of ego," as author Bill Bryson states in A Short History of Nearly Everything (2003) (114). He was born in a small Missouri town on the edge of the Ozarks and grew up in Wheaton, Illinois; on the outskirts of Chicago. His father was a successful insurance executive, so life was always calm and Hubble abiding. Accordingly, Hubble was remarked to be a tough and poised athlete, charismatic, chic, and immensely good-looking-"handsome almost to a fault," in the words of William H. Cropper; as well as "an Adonis" in the words of another admirer (115). These fated gifts were used more or less in constant acts of valor-rescuing drowning swimmers, leading frightened men to safety across the battlefields of France, embarrassing world-champion boxers with knockdown punches in exhibition bouts."
Abstract It is difficult for many Americans to believe that sending human beings into space via the national space program is such an important effort today. This is partly in the light of a reconfigured geopolitical balance between Russia and America, and partly due to the increased costs and perceived risks of the space program. This paper argues these doubts are correct. For although it may become technically possible for humans to travel to Mars, the paper argues that human travel to Mars should not be the primary goal of the American space program.
From the Paper "For NASA, Mars remains an important long-term goal and a way of establishing political capital in Washington D.C. during a time where even necessary, earthly social services programs are finanically strapped, given the war on terrorism at home, and the reconstruction of Iraq abroad. Its official literature directed towards the public promotes Mars exploration, in the form of the Mars Rover and also in terms of the potential for "making the vision a reality" of manning a spacecraft to the Red Planet. But although refreshing in the breadth of its vision and the beauty of its prose, NASA remains cagey about the financial realities this mission would cost the United States, and working out the details of negotiating a truce or a peace pact regarding finances between the United States and Russia over such a mission. (NASA Official Website, 2005)"
