Abstract The paper defines black holes and explains what they are made up of. The paper explores common misconceptions surrounding black holes, as well as other mysteries. Finally the paper examines theories regarding how black holes eventually end.
From the Paper "Black holes, one of space's greatest phenomenons, appear to be tremendous concentrations of matter, usually at the center of a galaxy; however, smaller back holes are possible. The matter is in the form of neutrons, protons, and electrons, tightly packed together by their mutual gravitational attraction. The beautifully descriptive name comes from the fact that light cannot exit from a Black hole. They are suspected to form in the death and collapse of a star that began with more than10 times the sun's mass (those with less mass become white dwarfs or neutron stars)."
Abstract This paper deals with Galileo's arguments with church officials, and his attempt to reconcile his scientific findings with teachings from the bible. Emphasis is placed on Galileo's conviction that scientific truth and the biblical message are not contradictory, but can complement each other. Historical and religious figures are discussed with respect to their influence on Galileo.
From the Paper "Perhaps the most relevant and convincing argument that Galileo posed to clear up the relationship between
scientific truth and the bible was that the bible was often unclear and ambiguous (GAL 214, 206, 199), which could cause the true meaning to be misunderstood by people attempting to translate it's meaning. An example of this posed by Galileo was from the commonly known story of God stopping the sun in the sky to allow Joshua to win a battle."
Abstract This is an informative paper on what exactly a black hole is and what scientists have theorized about black holes. The paper examines the formation of black holes, past research on black holes and pondering questions still unanswered today.
From the Paper "Ever since you were old enough to know what the sky, moon and stars were, you have always imagined what is actually up there? One of the most fascinating ideas of all is the mysterious and scary thought of a BLACK HOLE! This is perfectly normal because even today scientists are still pondering over that same question ? what is a black hole and does it exist? Theories that at one time seemed reasonable are now laughed at, our skies hold an infinite space which we will never be able to explore, as a result, our questions will be infinite as well."
Abstract This paper details how Galileo Galilei affected history by discovering the potential of the telescope, pioneering new approaches to science, and challenging the authority of the Catholic Church.
From the Paper "Galileo Galilei was a mathematician, an astronomer, and a physicist who made several significant contributions to modern scientific thought. During his life, he made many scientific discoveries, often in contradiction with the centuries-old ideas of the Greek philosopher Aristotle. These contradictions led to great conflict with the Catholic Church; however, he emerged as a symbol to others who oppose unyielding authority and champion scientific progress. As James Reston's biography Galileo makes clear, Galileo is a historical figure who affected history by discovering the potential of the telescope, pioneering new approaches to science, and challenging the authority of the Catholic Church."
Abstract This paper looks at black holes in terms of the most prevalent theories. It first, defines what we have come to understand as a black hole. It then touches upon how black holes are documented and measured. Thirdly, it examines the black hole believed to be at the center of our own Milky Way galaxy. Finally, it explores the prevalent hypothesis that black holes are in fact the genesis of all galaxies.
From the Paper "Gravity is the cause of black holes. A black hole is the unlimited and irresistible force of ultimate gravity in the universe. To understand how a black hole is created, it is helpful to understand a bit about the basics of gravity. Imagine shooting an arrow into the sky. The harder you shoot the arrow, the farther it will go in attempting to escape the pull of the Earth's gravity. If you were to use a big enough bow with enough force you could help the arrow reach speeds exceeding 7miles per second which is the escape velocity for the Earth. Escape velocity indicates the minimum speed necessary to beat the pull of the planet's gravitational core (Cowen , 390). The strength of the gravitational pull of the core is determined by the density and mass of the core. The denser and more massive that the core is, the greater the gravitational pull. If you were to drop a ball to the center of the earth, the gravitational forces would crush it into an ever shrinking volume requiring even greater amounts of force to help it reach escape velocity. As the greatest theoretical speed for any physical object in the universe is that of light (which travels at 186 thousand miles per second) a mass large and dense enough can actually exert so much force that not even light can achieve escape velocity. The object that can pull even light into it and keep it from escaping is a black hole."
Abstract The paper describes a black hole as a region of space that has so much mass concentrated in it that there is no way for a nearby object to escape its gravitational pull. Black holes are thought to be formed from stars or other massive objects when they collapse from their own gravity to form an object whose density is infinite. This paper covers the topic of black holes including definition, origin, history and size.
From the Paper "In the 1930s, researchers began to prove that black holes may actually exist. They showed that when a sufficiently massive star runs out of fuel, it is unable to support itself against its own gravitational pull and should collapse into a black hole.
"The term "black hole" was coined by physicist John Archibald Wheeler coined in the 1960s. So why did Wheeler choose to call them black holes? The main reason was since no light can escape from inside a black hole, it seemed logical. Before Wheeler invented the term, black holes were commonly referred to as ?frozen stars.? "
Abstract This paper looks at the numerous contributions that Galileo made in the areas of mathematics, physics, and astronomy and shows how he symbolizes the struggle against the Catholic Church and the freedom of scientific inquiry during the Renaissance period.
From the Paper "As a young man, Galileo showed very little interest in astronomy and focused more on mathematics and physics. Beginning in 1595, however, he became interested in the theory made by Copernicus in the early 1500s. Copernicus's theory consisted of a heliocentric model where the Earth revolves around the sun. This was contrary to the assumptions made by Aristotle and Ptolemy where the heavenly bodies, including the sun, revolved around a stationary Earth.
In July 1609, a most extraordinary event occurred which startled the world and changed the life of Galileo. A man in the Netherlands by the name of Hans Lippershey, who was an eyeglass spectacles maker, had invented a device that magnified distant objects immensely."
From the Paper "This research will examine whether space exploration has provided significant benefits to human beings. The plan of the research will be to set forth the scientific and historical context in which the American space-exploration program emerged, and then to discuss the scientific and technical issues relevant to it, as well as social, political, and economic issues. Controversy surrounds evaluation of the wisdom of the space program, and for that reason arguments both in favor of and against the concept and/or execution of the program will be identified. The evidence will be analyzed with a view toward assessing which judgment of the space program appears to be most valid."
From the Paper "The Hubble Space Telescope is a cooperative program of the European Space Agency (ESA) and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) for the operation of a long lived space based observatory for the benefit of the international astronomical community. The idea was first developed in the 1940s, designed and built in the 1970s and 80s, and made operational only in the 1990s. This was to be a different type of mission for NASA, to create a long term space based observatory. In order to accomplish this goal and to protect the spacecraft against instrument and equipment failures, NASA had always planned on regular servicing missions. The Hubble has special grapple fixtures, 76 handholds, and is stabilized in all three axes. The Hubble is a 2.4 meter reflecting telescope which was deployed in low ..."
From the Paper "Background
The Big Bang Theory is an explanation for the beginning of the universe. The universe today is expanding, as can be seen in the way all matter is moving outward. Tracing this movement back through time takes all matter to a single point, leading to the view that at one time all matter was concentrated in a singularity which for some unknown reason exploded, throwing all material now seen in the universe outward from that central point. There are various corollaries to this theory, such as the issue of whether the expanding universe will continue to expand forever or will eventually reach an end point and fall back on itself. There are also various consequences of the Big Bang which can be used to determine if the theory has validity. A number of researchers have examined aspects of the Big Bang theory and developed ideas..."
Abstract The paper looks at the Viking landing missions on Mars twenty years ago and their tests for biological processes on the Martian surface. It looks at how a recent series of orbiting Martian missions has yielded a good deal of chemical and geographic observations from afar. The most exciting possibilities have come from the analysis and interpretation of Martian surface formations seen by these missions. The paper includes a detailed description of these formations such as outflow channels, seepage gullies and several others. In further searches for definitive findings, several missions in the near future will land on Mars and hopefully provide the best data yet. This paper details some of the discoveries made to date, the strongest arguments for water on Mars and what the future holds for Martian exploration.
From the Paper "The thought of life on Mars has intrigued humans for centuries. As Martian astronomy has made incredible leaps in the past 100 years and many spectacular discoveries have been made, we are still not sure if life does or has ever existed on Mars. Over the last thirty years, as our knowledge of biological functions has increased, scientists have focused more and more on the existence of liquid water as the biggest single indicator of possible life. To that end, much work and controversy has surrounded man's efforts to find evidence of that all important ingredient for the development of life on Mars."
Abstract Discussion of H.H. Hickam's book. The dream of Hickam and his friends to build a rocket and have a place in the U.S. Space Program. How their rocket was built. Entry in the National Science Fair. Winning a gold and silver medal. The realization of his dream when he became a NASA engineer.
From the Paper "THE ROCKET BOYS
Boys always dreamed of getting off the ground. Kites, model airplanes, balloons, whatever could me made in their rooms or the garage or the backyard that would soar and lift their imaginations. And then came the Nineteen Sixties, when the Russians were the first to put a man into space. Now, the dreams of boys were not a contest of one boy in one neighborhood against the other, it was Americans against the Russians. When Sonny's mother asked him what that news broadcast and the beeping sound was all about, he knew the answer right away. "I knew exactly what it was. All the science-fiction books and Dad's magazines I'd read over the years put me in good stead to answer. 'It's a space satellite, I explained. 'We were supposed to launch one this year, too. I can't believe the Russians beat us to it'" (Hickam, 1998 ..."
Abstract This paper covers the following topics: what are supernovae; the history of the supernovae; supernovae in our Galaxy: how they are formed; nomenclature; how they affect us.
From the Paper " A supernova is the cataclysmic explosion of a big mass star, which releases a huge quantity of light instantaneously, occurring approximately twice per century. Astronomers have been observing supernovae in our skies since the times of Christian Huygens, Simon Marius, Messier, Brache and Kepler. Fritz Zwicky was the first to use the term supernova to describe lights that were much brighter than any other star or planetary body visible in the sky. "
Abstract This paper discusses the asteroid which scientists believe caused the extinction of dinosaurs and the probability of another event such as this occurring. It also discuss the measurements government has taken to prevent a damaging impact and the different methods they will use to deter such an asteroid if one should come too near the Earth.
From the Paper "Luckily for us, impacts that would cause massive destruction occur on Earth only about once ever 100,000 years (NASA Ames Space Science Division). According to NASA, these dangerous asteroids capable of wreaking global havoc are extremely rare."
Abstract This paper describes in depth test results and discoveries on black holes and whether or not they do exist. Special emphasis is placed on a discussion of Cygnus X-1.
From the Paper "The only ways that we can detect black holes are to see the bending of light, or to examine the waves that they put off. The first thing discovered was a X-ray source in the constellation of Cygnus. This was then called Cygnus X-1 for its first X-ray source. No one knew for sure where this was coming from because X-ray telescopes cannot give that precise of a location. Later, in the spring of 1972 a new unexplained radio source was found in the same general area as Cygnus X-1. They identified this as an optical star known only by its classification number HDE226868. While we were finding this, the X-ray source for Cygnus X-1 showed up once again. They examined the data between these two objects, and made the conclusion that they were related. Most likely as a binary pair, with the star, and the unknown object, Cygnus X-1, orbiting around each other (DeGennaro). A binary pair is a pair of stars that orbit around each other, in this case one is a black hole, and the star orbits around it. As it orbits the immense gravity from the black hole strips gas from the normal star. As it falls it is moving at such a speed that the friction causes it to heat up to several million degrees, and this heat then causes the x-rays (McClintock)."
