Abstract
The paper describes a black hole as a region of space that has so much mass concentrated in it that there is no way for a nearby object to escape its gravitational pull. Black holes are thought to be formed from stars or other massive objects when they collapse from their own gravity to form an object whose density is infinite. This paper covers the topic of black holes including definition, origin, history and size.

From the Paper
"In the 1930s, researchers began to prove that black holes may actually exist. They showed that when a sufficiently massive star runs out of fuel, it is unable to support itself against its own gravitational pull and should collapse into a black hole.

"The term "black hole" was coined by physicist John Archibald Wheeler coined in the 1960s. So why did Wheeler choose to call them black holes? The main reason was since no light can escape from inside a black hole, it seemed logical. Before Wheeler invented the term, black holes were commonly referred to as "frozen stars." "

Tags:theory, of, general, relativity, John, Michell, Schwarzschild, supernova, Astronomers, galaxies

From the Paper
"The Hubble Space Telescope is a cooperative program of the European Space Agency (ESA) and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) for the operation of a long lived space based observatory for the benefit of the international astronomical community. The idea was first developed in the 1940s, designed and built in the 1970s and 80s, and made operational only in the 1990s. This was to be a different type of mission for NASA, to create a long term space based observatory. In order to accomplish this goal and to protect the spacecraft against instrument and equipment failures, NASA had always planned on regular servicing missions. The Hubble has special grapple fixtures, 76 handholds, and is stabilized in all three axes. The Hubble is a 2.4 meter reflecting telescope which was deployed in low ..."

Abstract
The paper looks at the Viking landing missions on Mars twenty years ago and their tests for biological processes on the Martian surface. It looks at how a recent series of orbiting Martian missions has yielded a good deal of chemical and geographic observations from afar. The most exciting possibilities have come from the analysis and interpretation of Martian surface formations seen by these missions. The paper includes a detailed description of these formations such as outflow channels, seepage gullies and several others. In further searches for definitive findings, several missions in the near future will land on Mars and hopefully provide the best data yet. This paper details some of the discoveries made to date, the strongest arguments for water on Mars and what the future holds for Martian exploration.

From the Paper
"The thought of life on Mars has intrigued humans for centuries. As Martian astronomy has made incredible leaps in the past 100 years and many spectacular discoveries have been made, we are still not sure if life does or has ever existed on Mars. Over the last thirty years, as our knowledge of biological functions has increased, scientists have focused more and more on the existence of liquid water as the biggest single indicator of possible life. To that end, much work and controversy has surrounded man's efforts to find evidence of that all important ingredient for the development of life on Mars."

Tags:atmosphere, carbon, dioxide, earth, lunar, nasa, odyssey, orbit, planet, rover, solar, space, sun, system

Abstract
This paper looks at the numerous contributions that Galileo made in the areas of mathematics, physics, and astronomy and shows how he symbolizes the struggle against the Catholic Church and the freedom of scientific inquiry during the Renaissance period.

From the Paper
"As a young man, Galileo showed very little interest in astronomy and focused more on mathematics and physics. Beginning in 1595, however, he became interested in the theory made by Copernicus in the early 1500s. Copernicus's theory consisted of a heliocentric model where the Earth revolves around the sun. This was contrary to the assumptions made by Aristotle and Ptolemy where the heavenly bodies, including the sun, revolved around a stationary Earth.

In July 1609, a most extraordinary event occurred which startled the world and changed the life of Galileo. A man in the Netherlands by the name of Hans Lippershey, who was an eyeglass spectacles maker, had invented a device that magnified distant objects immensely."

Tags:achievements, discoveries, theories, astronomy, mathematics, physics, Copernicus, telescope

Abstract
This paper looks at black holes in terms of the most prevalent theories. It first, defines what we have come to understand as a black hole. It then touches upon how black holes are documented and measured. Thirdly, it examines the black hole believed to be at the center of our own Milky Way galaxy. Finally, it explores the prevalent hypothesis that black holes are in fact the genesis of all galaxies.

From the Paper
"Gravity is the cause of black holes. A black hole is the unlimited and irresistible force of ultimate gravity in the universe. To understand how a black hole is created, it is helpful to understand a bit about the basics of gravity. Imagine shooting an arrow into the sky. The harder you shoot the arrow, the farther it will go in attempting to escape the pull of the Earth's gravity. If you were to use a big enough bow with enough force you could help the arrow reach speeds exceeding 7miles per second which is the escape velocity for the Earth. Escape velocity indicates the minimum speed necessary to beat the pull of the planet's gravitational core (Cowen , 390). The strength of the gravitational pull of the core is determined by the density and mass of the core. The denser and more massive that the core is, the greater the gravitational pull. If you were to drop a ball to the center of the earth, the gravitational forces would crush it into an ever shrinking volume requiring even greater amounts of force to help it reach escape velocity. As the greatest theoretical speed for any physical object in the universe is that of light (which travels at 186 thousand miles per second) a mass large and dense enough can actually exert so much force that not even light can achieve escape velocity. The object that can pull even light into it and keep it from escaping is a black hole."

Tags:earth, gravity, milky, way, galaxy

Abstract
This paper details how Galileo Galilei affected history by discovering the potential of the telescope, pioneering new approaches to science, and challenging the authority of the Catholic Church.

From the Paper
"Galileo Galilei was a mathematician, an astronomer, and a physicist who made several significant contributions to modern scientific thought. During his life, he made many scientific discoveries, often in contradiction with the centuries-old ideas of the Greek philosopher Aristotle. These contradictions led to great conflict with the Catholic Church; however, he emerged as a symbol to others who oppose unyielding authority and champion scientific progress. As James Reston's biography Galileo makes clear, Galileo is a historical figure who affected history by discovering the potential of the telescope, pioneering new approaches to science, and challenging the authority of the Catholic Church."

Tags:astronomy, galilei, galileo, mathematics, physics, science

Abstract
The writer gives a background of the Big Bang Theory and explores the theory as an explanation of the beginning of the universe. However, since the 1940s and the introduction of this theory, scientists have raised questions as to the validity of the explanation and continue to research other ways in which the universe might have been created. The paper traces some of this research.

From the Paper
"One such area of research has been the model for the expansion of the universe and so for the Big Bang. One theory offered to explain this is the inflationary model, and over the last two decades what has happened to this model shows some of the ways scientific truth is pursued and fine-tuned. Alan Guth developed the idea in 1979 and wrote it in his notebook. Inflation was the name for the mechanism Guth proposed for igniting cosmic expansion and which might have operated for as little as 10-35 seconds. Still, it would have whipped up all the matter and energy in the universe and laid the seeds for galaxies and galaxy clusters in that brief time, and in that time the universe would have blossomed exponentially from as small as 10-24 centimeters across to perhaps the size of a pumpkin. Michael Turner of the University of Chicago describes inflation as "the most important idea in cosmology since that of the big bang itself.""

Tags:universe, creation, science, astronomy, research

Abstract
This paper deals with Galileo's arguments with church officials, and his attempt to reconcile his scientific findings with teachings from the bible. Emphasis is placed on Galileo's conviction that scientific truth and the biblical message are not contradictory, but can complement each other. Historical and religious figures are discussed with respect to their influence on Galileo.

From the Paper
"Perhaps the most relevant and convincing argument that Galileo posed to clear up the relationship between
scientific truth and the bible was that the bible was often unclear and ambiguous (GAL 214, 206, 199), which could cause the true meaning to be misunderstood by people attempting to translate its meaning. An example of this posed by Galileo was from the commonly known story of God stopping the sun in the sky to allow Joshua to win a battle."

Tags:bible, church, dogma, galileo, religion, renaissance, scientific, truth, -, LO, TOV

Abstract
This is an informative paper on what exactly a black hole is and what scientists have theorized about black holes. The paper examines the formation of black holes, past research on black holes and pondering questions still unanswered today.

From the Paper
"Ever since you were old enough to know what the sky, moon and stars were, you have always imagined what is actually up there? One of the most fascinating ideas of all is the mysterious and scary thought of a BLACK HOLE! This is perfectly normal because even today scientists are still pondering over that same question - what is a black hole and does it exist? Theories that at one time seemed reasonable are now laughed at, our skies hold an infinite space which we will never be able to explore, as a result, our questions will be infinite as well."

Tags:astronomy, black, holes, science, stars, universe, infinity

Abstract
The paper defines black holes and explains what they are made up of. The paper explores common misconceptions surrounding black holes, as well as other mysteries. Finally the paper examines theories regarding how black holes eventually end.

From the Paper
"Black holes, one of space's greatest phenomenons, appear to be tremendous concentrations of matter, usually at the center of a galaxy; however, smaller back holes are possible. The matter is in the form of neutrons, protons, and electrons, tightly packed together by their mutual gravitational attraction. The beautifully descriptive name comes from the fact that light cannot exit from a Black hole. They are suspected to form in the death and collapse of a star that began with more than10 times the sun's mass (those with less mass become white dwarfs or neutron stars)."

Tags:galaxy, Albert Einstein, radiation