This paper discusses the formation of the People's Communes in China which represents a stage in the continuation of the progressive collectivization of the Chinese countryside.
Abstract This paper discusses the emergence of communes in the Chinese countryside in the late 1950s as a "natural" step in the process of transformation demanded by the Great Leap Forward. The paper states that, although the cooperativization in 1955-56 resulted in the "loss" of land for the peasants, they retained their homes, small private plots and some animals. The author reports that under the impetus of the slogan "build socialism more, faster, better and more economically", far-reaching changes in working styles and methods were made throughout China.
From the Paper "An example of the attempt to introduce the peasantry to factory-style production and technique is the oft-cited movement for the construction and operation of "back-yard furnaces". These enterprises aimed to produce a crude form of pig iron using primarily scrap metal, with the hope that through the development of local skills and initiative, farm implements and other tools could be produced locally. The first orders for the construction of these small brick blast furnaces came in May 1958 from K"o Ch"ing-shih, the First Secretary of the Shanghai City Committee of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). But later, and at a time when the experiment was being looked upon with some derision, Mao himself accepted responsibility for advocating the idea (2)."
This paper analyzes Amy Tan's "The Joy Luck Club" as it sets its narrative against the backdrop of the key historical events of the middle of the 20th century.
Abstract This paper examines the ways in which the mother-child relationship is negotiated and continually reconstructed in "The Joy Luck Club" and the endlessly complex ways in which mothers and daughters love each other and can so easily destroy each other. All of this takes place in the context of families of Chinese-Americans in California.
From the Paper "When political barriers began to fall in the 1970's, older emigrants welcomed the chance to end their long and agonizing exiles. But their children looked with a deep ambivalence on the idea of having to awaken a dormant Chinese side in themselves. And so, as the exterior world went about recognizing China, re-establishing diplomatic relations and initiating trade and cultural exchanges, these young Chinese-Americans found themselves wrestling with a very different and infinitely more complicated interior problem: how to recognize a country to which they were inextricably bound by heritage, but to which they had never been. For Tan's daughters, this meant coming to terms with themselves as independent of their mothers and yet inextricably a part of the same heritage."
Abstract This paper explains that there is a region called Chinatown in many major American cities, a region where Chinese immigrants have gathered together and opened businesses in such numbers that they have created a small version of their home in China. The author states that the Los Angeles's version of Chinatown is not very large, not as large as the Chinatowns in San Francisco and New York. The author believes that visitors who come to the Chinatown region often will get more of the flavor of Chinese culture than casual visitors because there are many celebrations scheduled during the year.
From the Paper "One can approach Chinatown from the Sunset Boulevard (recently changed along here to West Cesar E. Chavez Avenue) side, more or less across from Olvera Street and not far from the downtown railroad station and the main Post Office. The visitor enters a different world, with shops that have different goods than are found in other parts of the city, buildings with a different kind of design, and many more Chinese people than are usually found in other parts of the city. The shops contain many Chinese-designed goods, including colorful fans, scarves, holders for incense, products made from bamboo and teakwood, finely painted silks, and carved figures of people and animals. The food shops contain packages with Chinese lettering and containing foods with which most people may not be familiar, or may not have seen outside of a Chinese restaurant."
Abstract The late 1960s in China was known as the period of the Cultural Revolution and this was an attempt on the part of certain central Communist Party members to weed out dissent and to exert a tighter control. The paper discusses Jonathan Spence's "The Search for Modern China" which shows that the Cultural Revolution was a direct attack on all the old elements in Chinese society. The paper shows that what began as a push for the socialist purification of art would become pressure for the socialist purification of all aspects of society and life. The paper also examines "Chinese Awakenings" by James and Ann Tyson which documents the aftermath of the Cultural Revolution.
From the Paper "The structure of this book takes the reader from the peasant class upward through other levels of society to show how different individuals in different social classes are reacting to the new opportunities and the new economic forces. The idea of the entrepreneur is foreign to Communist China but is becoming more accepted. The question asked is, if it is desirable that some people become rich before others, then who should the people be, and what should be the extent of the income differences? The view taken now is that those who contribute most to the creation of society's wealth, and thereby set a good example for others, deserve to become rich first, and this group includes the entrepreneurs. This group came into existence in 1978 when the government decided to permit private individuals to engage in petty trades and services--areas in which the state sector had performed poorly--to help solve a growing unemployment problem. Because they provide much-needed services and are flexible in terms of business hours and locations, the business operators have prospered in general and have tended to earn more than state employees, and this in turn has caused some resentment."
Abstract The Meiji Revolution, which came about at the end of the nineteenth century, toppled the Tokugawa shogunate, "restored" imperial rule and transformed Japan from a feudal into a modern state. This paper examines how the ambiguous constitutional structure, military orientation and nationalist ideology bequeathed by the Meiji Restoration led Japan to military disaster in WWII. It shows how racist Meiji ideology affected the propaganda put out by the Japanese during the war. The paper contains illustrations.
From the Paper "The Japanese created a copycat theory that meant they adapted to the western industrialization. However, they had a hidden agenda to create a more superior power than the west. All they would do is innovate and mutate the capitalist ideology. While this was happening the Japanese would become more anti west and have more of a feeling of moral superiority. A new world order would show where they belonged in the world and how they would become greater."
Abstract This paper examines the Japanese culture and its relationship to banking. The characteristics of Japanese banking are outlined, and two socio-economic constructs, known as the "zaibatsu" and "keiretsu", are discussed. These socio-economic constructs illustrate strong historical links between banks and industry in Japan. The differences between Japanese and Western capitalism are explained.
From the Paper "Several years ago, researchers began investigating the relationship between Japanese Capitalism and Western Capitalism. Johnson (1993) pointed out that the differences between the two types of Capitalism are profound and point to changing and evolving theories of economics. This dichotomy of attitudes is the result, suggests Johnson, of many factors, most predominant of which was a certain blindness on the part of the West to acknowledge that Japanese capitalism was indeed different from the laissez-faire construct of the West (Aoki, 1988)."
Abstract In a 'Columbia Law Review' article published in 1999 -- "Lifetime Employment: Labor Peace and the Evolution of Japanese Corporate Governance" -- authors Gilson and Roe maintain that the Japanese practice of constricting the external labor market is responsible for firms' willingness to invest in human capital. They specifically reject the proposition that Japan's institution of lifetime employment could be the impetus for such corporate outlay. This paper contends, however, that social norms, coupled with a divergent development of Japan's employment law, gave rise to its lifetime employment policy and that this resulting policy accounts for employers' willingness to invest in human capital. The paper argues that a closed market is the result -- not the cause -- of corporate investment in employees.
From the Paper "It is recognized that Japanese labor law theory is firmly established in that of the Weimar Republic, which gave preference to group interests over that of the individual. The theory began to evolve during Japan's first industrialization at the end of the 19th century, when a severe shortage of skilled labor fostered worker migration from company to company. The situation was exacerbated when, in the 1920s, Japan underwent a series of hostile, chaotic strikes, which further caused significant labor turnover in key industries."
Abstract American notions of race and civilization greatly influenced U.S. support for the Philippine-American War that took place from February 1899 to July 1902. The paper shows that many historians argue that Americans supported the Philippine-American war out of a genuine desire to civilize the inferior Filipino race. However, years of isolationist foreign policies coupled with the threat of growing European powers had created widespread anxieties among Americans in the 1890s. The paper argues, therefore, that the the Philippine-American War actually served as an outlet for American anxieties about U.S. international power by allowing Americans to reaffirm their racial superiority.
From the Paper "America could have easily maintained trade with the islands, but chose instead to seek the annexation of Philippines, which cost America many lives and opened up American economy to foreign financers. Nevertheless, support for the annexation of the Philippines was widespread. Rather than considering more peaceful alternatives to the war, many Americans supported the attempt to emulate the "policy of expansions which [had] been pursued in England" in order to achieve an even greater amount of international power than their European allies.
Americans were also able to calm their insecurities, which had fostered avid support of the war, by proclaiming that the U.S. had a divine responsibility to tame the barbarian Filipinos. Americans asserted their racial greatness by complaining of the white man's burden as a divine nation to ?uplift and civilize and Christianize the Filipinos.?"
Tags: Theodore, Roosevelt, William, McKinley, Far, East
Abstract The paper identifies and analyzes the characteristics of these three consumer market groups and then discusses ways in which marketers can use those characteristics to profitable advantage. The writer employs statistics to give a numerical focus to the population in the United States today, outlining characteristics of each population and giving marketing strategies for reaching each consumer group.
From the Paper "The best way to reach these immigrants (and their potential dollars) is through the distribution of radio commercials and staff-produced stories on Spanish-language radio programs. Moreover, because the country at large expects strong increases in the Hispanic people, media companies are spending large amounts of money hiring consultants to help them do a better job of reaching Hispanics (Medina, Saegert, & Gresham, 1996)."
Abstract The paper offers an intimate glimpse of racism and its impact on the individuals who are adversely affected, by sharing the experiences of Maria Cheng, a 24-year-old second-generation Chinese, born and raised in California.
From the Paper "With their distinctive physical features that distinguish them from other racial groups in American society, Chinese Americans have faced racism throughout the history of their existence in America. During late 19th century, laws were passed that barred Chinese immigration and forbade Chinese from testifying in federal courts against white men (Fung 37). Although Chinese Americans no longer face the same kind of prejudice and have made great strides in establishing themselves in American society, they still suffer from discrimination today."
Abstract This paper discusses how linguistic and cultural proficiency has enabled Korean-Americans to enjoy a higher standard of living than their non-English-speaking counterparts. It examines how although many bilingual Korean Americans have decided to assimilate in the American society in pursuit of financial and social security, others have chosen to use their linguistic and cultural proficiency to forge an unique Korean-American niche in American society. It looks at how Korean-Americans who decide to assimilate into American society, often have to abandon their traditions and ethnic origins.
From the Paper "Furthermore, bilingual Korean Americans who are familiar with the American culture through their extensive involvement with white people during their childhood and adolescence have also undergone a painful period of denial and reawakening. They realize that their acceptance into mainstream American society requires them to abandon their ethnic and cultural origins?an integral part of their identity. Kim's journey from an Americanized Korean American who embraced American culture in order to be accepted by his peers to a director of the Korean Youth and Community Center captures this experience. As a social activist, Kim does not believe that Korean Americans should blend into mainstream American society."
Abstract This research paper summarizes and analyzes the historical development of martial arts in China. The paper explores the history of the artform as a product of the confluence and interaction of many religious, philosophical and practical influences dating back to ancient times. Included in the topics are the Chinese classical approach to warfare and military tactics, Daoist thought, Buddhism and various more modern syntheses of martial arts theories, including the teachings of the monks.
Contents:
Chinese Military Realities and Classical Theories
Daoist Thought
Buddhism
Consolidation of Martial Arts Theory
Conclusion
From the Paper "The martial arts in practical terms formed the basis for the training of Chinese for combat which in turn was influenced strongly by the nature and realities of warfare as it was practiced in ancient times and recounted by Chinese historians. Most of those histories related to civil wars between contending power factions, later to the wars which established China's first longlasting unified dynasty, the Han (B.C. 202-A.D. 221), and the wars fought by the Han against barbarians from Central Asia."
Tags: chinese, buddhism, buddha, dao, dynasty, tao, asian, form
Abstract This paper reviews the novel "The Woman Warrior" by Kingston, focusing on the issues of women in culturally different and foreign scenarios. The paper presents a background on the author Maxine Hong Kingston, as a woman born to a Chinese family in California and surrounded by Chinese culture and people. This, the writer believes, reflects in her writing. The paper presents the issues Kingston wrote of including women in Chinese culture and the mixing of the American and Chinese traditions.
From the Paper "Maxine Hong Kingston was born in 1940 in Stockton, California, to a Chinese immigrant family, and she grew up and lived in a Chinese community that followed the customs and tradition of its native land. The expectation for women in traditional Chinese society was as a wife or a slave, though in Kingston's family this expectation was considered an underachievement. Kingston herself would often be bombarded by negative comments directed towards her and her sister because the people in this more traditional Chinese community did not recognize the value of girl children."
Tags: culture, differences, racism, society, tradition, community
Abstract This paper examines the changing gender roles in Japan by focusing on two broad areas ? the role of women in the family and the role of women in the economic/work sphere. The first part of the paper examines women in the traditional domestic sphere. In the second part, the paper looks at women's participation in the sphere of gainful labor, which increased dramatically after World War II. Finally, the paper looks at the effects these changing roles have engendered in other spheres of Japanese life, such as politics and the women's movement.
From the Paper "Traditional stereotypes hold that women have always occupied a subservient role in Japanese society. Indeed, among the most enduring images of women in Japan are the mother/wife/caretaker or the geisha.
These stereotypes, however, hardly do justice to the complex and nuanced positions women have occupied in Japanese society. In many instances, the "image" of the subservient Japanese women does not reflect the power and social expectations related to her role in society."
Tags: gender, roles, in, Japan, subserviant, Japanese, women, Kamakura, period
Abstract The paper focuses on the history of the arrival of the immigrants in the United States and the reasons for immigration. The paper also compares the effects of immigration on the traditional structures of the Orthodox Jewish and Korean families. The paper examines the factors that have helped or hindered the process of acculturation for both groups.
From the Paper "Several factors affected the acculturation process undergone by both the Jewish immigrants at the beginning of the 20th century and the Korean immigrants since 1965. One of the factors is religion. Jews were traditionally, a marginalized group in Europe, a status that carried over to the United States. This marginalization also encouraged them to stay more closely-knit as a group."
