Abstract This essay is a brief examination of the book, "Paths to the Ancient Past", by Tom B. Jones. It looks at the argument made by the author that history is often subject to interpretation and that the truth of history is found in archaeological evidence and records of fact.
Abstract This paper examines the relationship between weaving and architecture. It takes a close look at the structural, symbolic, and cultural connections between the two art forms. It concludes that both forms are indeed woven together within the structure of our communities and our history.
Abstract This paper examines the archaeological search for the historical Atlantis, the theories that have been suggested over the years and the techniques which have been used to investigate them. It looks at how the myth has been captured by many authors over the years such as Ignatius Donnelly. It also considers whether K.T. Frost's hypothesis attempting to prove that the lost city of Atlantis was in fact in the Aegean is the solution to the problem of its location.
From the Paper "However, if we are equating the destruction of Minoan Crete to that of Atlantis, we run into problems. The most obvious of these is that Atlantis was supposed to have sunk under the sea after experiencing "earthquakes and floods of extraordinary violence" . While Crete probably did experience earthquakes as a result of Santorini, it is quite plainly still there, not sunk under the waves at all. Supporters of the Crete/Thera theory have two arguments to this. The first is that the eruption of Santorini could have caused a tsunami that would have hit Crete. This would certainly be a watery end for the Minoans, but even stretching the imagination one cannot say that it 'sank' the island."
Abstract The paper gives a very real and accurate description life of Akhenaten. From his seemingly amazing, though heretical, accession to the throne of Egypt, to the establishment of his new city Akhentaten near Tel El Amarna. The paper fully describes the life of Akhenaten, his achievements, the changes he made to the Empire as well as his downfall from the Egyptian throne. All information and hypotheses are accurately justified with prime, confident primary and secondary sources and critically analysed to achieve a great satisfaction of critical use of sources.
From the Paper "Akhenaten declared to all Egypt that he was son of Aten and proposed that he was Aten is human form (an incarnation), and to worship Aten, he should be worshiped as a god. Roebuck provides evidence of how Akhenaten considered himself a god, Roebuck (1966) explains ?The kings shared a divinity of Aten and spoke of himself as Aten's son and co-regent, but the other gods of Egypt were laid aside.? Evidence here sates that Akhenaten saw himself as son of Aten. Throughout upper and lower Egypt, Akhenaten was depicted as a godly figure, portrayed larger than any other person, a clear sign in Egyptian culture and art, that he was more important than any other person and just as important as a god. Bradley (1999) sates "The size and position of the image of the king in scenes was an affirmation of the king's divinity, the king became the focus of worship" The Pharaoh's size and position in art was very important. Before Akhenaten kings were always shown was larger than any other, but not larger than that of a god. This source clearly explains that fact that Akhenaten was just as large as a god, so therefore considered himself a god."
Tags: amarna, amenhotep, aten, delta, disk, egypt, nile, sun, tel
Abstract This paper explains how all ancient civilizations relied on flowing water to exist. The Egyptians relied on the Nile. To the east, the Euphrates and the Tigris created Mesopotamia. The Indus River nourished ancient Indian civilization, and the great Yellow River (Huang Ho) made the birth of Chinese civilization possible.
From the Paper "Thus all ancient culture hearths could depend on a steady source of water, which also brought nutrients to the soil and fish as a source of food. Except for the violent Tigris and Yellow, the rivers also served as an easy means of communication. Easy communications facilitated the exchange of ideas and goods while breaking down the culturally retarding barriers of isolation. The size and fertility of the broad valleys made possible a vast increase in the land that could be cultivated, which in turn meant a vast increase in wealth and population; necessary ingredients to the development of large sophisticated social structures. Although great rivers were a common feature of these pioneering civilizations, soil and climate differed, and these differences left a significant imprint on human development. Different climates meant that the rivers nurtured different crops and required different methods of agriculture. Geography and the means by which people turned it to their uses influenced the ways in which societies evolved."
Abstract This paper is on Plato's "Trial And Death Of Socrates" and analyzes the two dialogues in the book, namely, "The Apology" and "The Crito", in reference to Socrates's claims. This paper also attempts to identify Socrates as a man of honor with strong moral ideals. Evidence is provided that shows how Socrates attempted to guide his fellow men on the path of righteousness.
From the Paper "Socrates bravely defends himself by suggesting that he had never attempted to corrupt the youth or cause them to become non-believers. He states, "What has caused my reputation is none other than a certain kind of wisdom. What kind of wisdom" Human wisdom, perhaps" (Benjamin Jowett, The Trial And Death Of Socrates). He then relates the story when he and his friend, Chairephon went to Oracle in their youth. The Oracle claimed that no one was wiser than Socrates was and since then Socrates made it his duty to find any man who had greater wisdom than him. In his quest, Socrates questioned the beliefs of poets, politicians and theologians, only to find that they were not as wise, as they had appeared to be. Socrates proclaimed, "In my investigation in the service of the god I found that those who had the highest reputation were nearly the most deficient, while those who were thought to be inferior were more knowledgeable" (Benjamin Jowett, The Trial And Death Of Socrates). This act obviously exposed many highly ranked men and earned Socrates a bad name. Socrates believed that an unexamined life was not worth living, and if he had agreed to accept the right of the court to judge his thoughts than he had indeed lost his honor. He openly professed that his followers represented his ideas for him."
Abstract This paper examines the careers of Julius Caesar and Augustus and discusses their importance in Roman history. The paper provides biographical information on each figure and looks at how each one entered the political arena and rose to the top. It looks at their careers as leaders of the Roman empire and their importance in history.
From the Paper "After returning to Rome, Caesar built up a reputation as a skillful advocate and orator, and was considered second only to the famous orator, Cicero in the powers of persuasion. He carefully developed contacts in Rome's corridors of power, and supported popular causes. Other stepping stones on his path to political prominence include his election to the College of Pontiffs in 73 BC, Military Tribune in 72 BC, and as quaestor in 69 BC under the governor of Spain. He was also elected as the "curule aedile" (urban magistrate)?a position which enabled him to arrange spectacular public entertainments such as gladiatorial games and fund lavish building projects. He also supported the politically powerful Pompey and Marcus Crassus, a rich patrician, forming an unofficial three-way alliance that has become known in history as the ?First Triumvirate.? In order to cement the political ties Caesar also gave his daughter Julia to Pompey in marriage and was duly supported by Pompey in his election as consul (59 BC), followed by appointment as governor of Roman Gaul in 58 BC."
Abstract A brief look at the history of mummification and when it was used. The purpose of mummification is discussed, and then the process is explained.
From the Paper "The Ancient Egyptians developed mummification method in which a dead body undergoes several processes to become a mummy. They made this a practice because they wanted their dead bodies to remain lifelike. Some beliefs of the ancient Egyptian civilizations, such as life after death, are the main motivation why they preserve a dead body."
Abstract This paper explains the use of iconography, the study of images in search of the thoughts and meanings imbued by the artist and transmitted to the viewer, as applied to African royal art. The author points out that, in the Yoruba society, women have a distinct and celebrated role within the community, unlike Western societies. The paper stresses that the crown of the King of Yoruba may be interpreted as representing male power and dominance, but it may also be interpreted as a representation of the cooperative nature of ruling by both male and female within the Yoruba culture.
From the Paper "The feminist slogan of "the personal is political" became a banner under which Western women determined to change the social fabric - attacking the norms and mores that had excluded women from participation in all areas of living. The feminist definition of social roles was grounded in an affirmation of women's attributes and contributions, not just of social relations. The Yoruba form of social interaction was not based on individualism, as is the Western concept. ?The Yoruba Iyalode (also called Eiyelobinrin or ?mother of all women,?) was often the head of a lineage as well as, "the woman designated as their political leader and spokesman in government". Her title as "chief" gave her jurisdiction over all women within her sphere of influence. She established courts and heard cases, creating a chain of authority that oversaw women's affairs, including the administration of the all-important markets."
Abstract In ancient Greece and Rome, traditions, histories, and other elements of society were passed down as oral traditions from one generation to another. While ancient Greek culture predates Roman culture, the two cultures developed a degree of interaction and similarity between the peoples. The mythology of these two cultures reflected many of the ethical issues that were important in that time. This paper shows that it is not surprising, considering their close geographic proximity, that there was a certain degree of mixing of cultures and, consequently, mythology as well. The research explores the similarities and differences between Greek and Roman deities.
From the Paper "Virgil wrote the Aeneid in the early Roman period, which was based largely on the Greek understanding of the gods and goddesses. However, he wrote characters that would appeal to the Roman social structure and ideology, and "romanized" the Greek deities. His works were based on the Greek writer Homer, who portrayed Zeus and Hera as petty complainers. The Roman ideals would not allow for a noble complainer, therefore Virgil transformed Zeus and Hera into heroic Jupiter and an angry God Juno, who struck fear in the hearts of men."
Abstract This paper explores how the Persian Wars changed the society of the Greeks, with a special focus on Athens. It attempts to compare the Archaic and Classical periods socially and culturally by using the Persian War as the fulcrum between Archaic and Classical. It also addresses the Persian War as the instigator of resistance that prompted changes within the classical period. It examines the changes in politics, art, literature, economics and intra-poleis relations.
Outline
Democratic Expansion
'Poliscentrism' vs. Imperialism ? The Athenian Empire
Economics ? Money, Money Makes a Man
The Progression of the Arts: The "Explosive" Archaic and the "Golden Age"
"There is No Growth Without Resistance" ? A Conclusion
From the Paper "The reforms of Solon did little to advance democratic rights for the Athenians, whilst he certainly took the first step in ending debt-bondage, it can hardly be considered a leaping bound for democracy. In 508 BC, Cleisthenes reorganised political groupings into a great number of tribes so as to break the strength of the clans. Cleisthenes then set about embedding main constitutional power in the Assembly; in spite of this the check of power was still held by elected archons and those of the Areopagus who were almost always of the aristocratic elite. The limitation on how far democracy was allowed to go was always in place. The Archaic Period in regards to the fulfilment or expansion of democracy, and certainly in comparison to the changes to be made in the Classical Period was more the planting of a seed - that would be later cultivated by Pericles."
Abstract This paper examines how the Egyptians were a civilization that impressionably influenced Western society and they did so through their artwork, architecture and literature, which permeated Western society's thought and created an architectural intrigue which still exists in present day. Incorporating a vast amount of primary and secondary resources, this paper is a detailed analysis of the Egyptian legacy.
From the Paper "Egyptian literature varies widely including Pyramid texts, which were named for their location ? in the pyramid tombs of the pharaohs, stories, hymns, wisdom texts, poems, love songs, biographical and historical texts, scientific treatises, and mathematical and medical texts. The Pyramid texts are the oldest and most popular form of Egyptian literature. They coincide with the rise of pyramids in the Old Kingdom. They served as a way to guide the tomb owner to the afterlife, enchanting him with incantations to secure his safe passage, sometimes describing his achievements on earth in order to gain favor with the gods."
Tags: architecture, egyptology, humanities, literature
Abstract This paper discusses different cultural and traditional aspects of four periods of the Hohokam history known as the pioneer, colonial, sedentary, and classic periods. The paper explores the architecture of these cultures, their art, the agricultural, hunting and gathering aspects, their clothing and pottery aspects, as well as their ceremonial and religious practices.
From the Paper "The name Hohokam is synonymous with "the ancients" (Kroeber, 1962). The tribe were neighbors to the Anasazi, somewhat similar to Pueblo cultures (Kroeber, 1962), and though to have migrated from various regions in Mexico to Arizona and the surrounding area (Gregoris, 1997). Many often compare the Hohokam with the Anasazi, who built very similar dwellings and lived similar lifestyles. The Hohokam distinguish themselves somewhat however by building largely segregated dwellings on posts and reeds, with habitats typically more arid in nature requiring the digging of irrigated canals and ditches (Kroeber, 1962)."
Abstract This paper studies the nature of the early state systems of Sumeria, Persia, and Assyria, the first region to experience the development of organized states based on urban civilization. The paper examines their internal structures and relationships with the societies around them, the ways in which they laid the foundations for each other, and the external factors that influenced their development.
From the Paper "Perhaps most important as a determining and unifying theme in the evolution of state systems in Mesopotamia is the geography of the region. It is significant that it was in the area of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, forming wide fertile valleys enclosed by mountains, that the first urban civilization developed; and the topography, resources and economic potential of the Mesopotamian landscape was crucial in influencing the character of the societies that flourished there."
Abstract This paper considers the problematic nature of a traveler's view of a foreign culture and society and, in particular, the ancient Greek traveler, Herodotus's, view of ancient Egypt. The paper looks at the reliability of Herodotus's sources, how his recordings of Egyptian history and culture differ from what has been written in other texts, and what cultural biases Herodotus might hold as an observer.
From the Paper "Travelogues as sources of accurate history are problematic. By definition, they are written by outsiders rather than insiders to a particular land, culture and time. Travel writing even in our historical present, has a notorious unreliability as sources of data. They are filtered through the point of view of someone who, even if he or she is conversant in the language of the region, is not always equally fluent in the culture, and must rely upon the point of view of those selected by the ruling regime. For instance, the voices of the ?Work Songs from Ancient Egypt: Voices of Ordinary Men and Women,? as chronicled in Chapter 12 of Bailkey are entirely absent, as these voices of the hands, backs, and sweat that the great pyramids were constructed by were not part of the exposure of the historian. Perhaps they might not have been as interesting, to Herodotus, as the great visions of the pyramids themselves, given that the Greek Herodotus himself was part of a culture that accepted slavery as a necessity."
