Abstract The paper begins with the discovery of the ancient city of Troy in 19th century Turkey. The archeological process involved in the discovery is discussed. The archeologists? choice of location is studied and the personality of Homer is examined. The paper explores the realities of the Trojan War and concludes by espousing the significance of the discovery for the historical field of study.
From the Paper "The city of Troy and the Trojan people were always considered mythological until the end of the 19th century. So far the world had come to know Troy through the mythological rendition by Homer. However in 1871, Heinrich Schliemann began excavation in an ancient city of Turkey. Schliemann, who was an American citizen but German by birth, was the first man in history who discovered that there was indeed a city named Troy, though in ruins. The lost city of Troy is also called Ilion or Ilium in Latin (Stearns, 2001). The excavation he began was continued till at least nine cities were discovered at the original site of excavation, layered one on top of the other. It was the seventh city that was found to be Troy. The archeologists agreed that the city was destroyed around 1250 BC and resembled closely the city of Troy as described in Homer's legends. The ruins could still be seen in the sixteen feet thick towers and walls of the city that was discovered (Luce, 1998)."
Tags: Troy (Asia Minor) Schliemann, Herbert Iliad Homer
Abstract This essay investigates whether the natural materials and technology available influenced the development of Egyptian art. The essay argues that the wealth of natural materials Egypt had in its possession provided the Egyptians with access to a range of mediums with which they could develop art. An argument is put forward that the technology and techniques used by the Egyptians greatly influenced and contributed to the development of Egyptian art. This essay begins by looking at the earliest materials and technologies that were used during the prehistoric period followed by an examination of how these materials and techniques developed over time. Evidence is provided throughout the essay to support these arguments.
From the Paper "Pottery was also one of the earliest forms of artwork in Egypt dating back to the Prehistoric Neolithic and Predynastic Periods. In 1985 Sir Flinders Petrie discovered a variety of Predynastic pottery vessels ranging from Badarian handmade vessels to decorated pottery from the Naqada Period that showed evidence of "exquisite craftsmanship" (Romer 1982:38). The natural materials that allowed for the creation of such pottery included Nile river silt clay, limestone and clayey shale from the cliffs (Romer 1982:45). The early technology used to produce pottery included polishing the pottery with a pebble to give a burnished red or black appearance before being fired in a kiln (Shaw & Nicholson 1995:226). Other
decorative characteristics included rippled lines that were produced by running another natural material, fish bones over the wet clay (Hart 1995:30)). Improvements in ceramic technology and the introduction of the potter's wheel allowed an increase in the range of shapes that could be produced (Quirke & Spencer 1992:178). However J. Romer (1982:70) states that the use of the potter's wheel led to a decline in the quality of Egyptian pottery. He argues that the potter's wheel, although allowing larger vessels to be made quickly and easily from clay, ultimately led to pottery becoming more utilitarian and of less artistic quality. Therefore although the standard of art declined, this is still evidence of how the technology available influenced the development of Egyptian art."
Abstract This essay describes how the art and culture of ancient Mesopotamia was defined by its climate and geographical locations. It also shows how the weather and geographical conditions affected wars and power in the region - and the reflection of this fact through art and artifacts found in the region.
From the Paper "Many believed that the south was the cradle of civilization until settlements dating back to around 5,000 B.C. were found in Northern Mesopotamia. Jarmo was the earliest of these settlements and was superseded by a series of cultures, Tell Hassuna, Samarra, and Tell Halaf. Tell Halaf was the most advanced of the early cultures (Mesopotamia pg). It is famous for Halaf ware, which is regarded as the finest prehistoric pottery in Mesopotamia (Mesopotamia pg). Halaf ware can be found at sites such as Neneveh and Tepe Gawra. While the north was making great advances in culture, ?civilization was just beginning in the south, particularly at Eridu."
Abstract This paper is an examination of Mayan architecture which emerged from the rainforests of Guatemala and Yucatan. The writer maintains that the detailed architecture was a fitting monument to the highly sophisticated civilization that existed in the region before the Spanish arrived. This look at the style of Mayan architecture includes a diagram highlighting the areas of construction in Copan. The paper argues that Mayan culture was more than a collection of buildings in that every aspect of architecture was linked to the sacred world around. In conclusion the writer explains that the temple pyramid which symbolizes Mayan architectural skill is also a statement of their cosmographic ideas. Everything has a beginning and end. Everything is the beginning and the end.
From the Paper "Deep in the tangled rainforests of Guatemala and the Yucatan, the Maya made some of the greatest contributions to world architecture. Their stone cities complete with temples, palaces, tombs, and ball courts are fitting monuments to the complex, and highly sophisticated civilization that existed in these regions many centuries before the arrival of the Spanish. Mayan priest-astronomers made elaborate calculations to catalog the passage of time. Great warrior kings immortalized themselves and their deeds on stelae, recording for future generations the contributions they had made toward maintaining the cosmic order. The Maya were the only Pre-Columbian people to ever have invented a complete system of writing".
Tags: emerged, rainforests, detailed, civilization, monument, diagram, sacred, buildings, construction
Abstract In-depth description of the archaelogical site of Chicheiza. Discusses the discovery of the site. Cataloging its major findings. Contribution of knowledge of Mayan society & the site's role in the future of Mexican archaeology. Its significance as a major MesoAmerican ruin in what was once the greatest Mayan city.
From the Paper "Chichen Itza is the most famous and well-known Mayan archaeological site. It has astonished visitors for over a thousand years and is a prime example of the glory that was the Mayan empire at its peak. Archaeologists have visited this impressive site for over two hundred years, poring over the many ruins and the impressive castle that is the heart of Chichen Itza. In the last twenty years the site has become a major tourist attraction as well, with over 40,000 people gathering twice a year to see Chichen Itza's seminal attraction: the snake formed by the sun during the fall and spring equinoxes. When speaking of Chichen Itza, one thing is certain: there may be prettier archaeological sites, there may be better maintained archaeological sites, but there is no archaeological site in the world that is more impressive. This paper will take an in depth..."
Abstract Violent conflict is well documented in human history and certainly appears in many prehistorical finds. The writer provides a systematic and comparative study of warfare from an archaeological perspective. This paper shows that the frequency and severity of war is commensurate and indeed rises with increased complexity of social interactions.
Table of Contents:
Abstract
Introduction
Definition of War
Pre-state and State Societies
Civilization
Prehistoric War
Hebrews: Pre-Monarchy
Hebrew Monarchy
Conclusion
From the Paper "Has the frequency and severity of warfare increased? More specifically, have these levels escalated compared to pre-state societies and societies of state? Firstly, in answering this question a definition of war is proposed, followed by a classification of societies, and a definition of the term 'civilization'. Secondly, details of prestate Hebrew society and their early state civilization will be contrasted. Finally, the contemporary Assyrian state that ultimately dominated the Hebrews is reviewed. In this assessment the essay draws on various historical and archaeological accounts that portray the increased frequency and severity of war."
Abstract The original list of the Seven Wonders was compiled when the city of Egypt was the center of Western civilization. This paper describes how over time the list of Wonders became regularized, the finalists being the Great Pyramid of Giza, the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, the statue of Zeus at Olympia, the Temple of Artemis at Ephesos, the Mausoleum at Halicamassus, the Colossus of Rhodes and the Pharos at Alexandria. The writer looks in detail at each wonder.
From the Paper "The first Wonder of the World is the Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt. The Great Pyramid was built over a twenty year period. The site was first prepared, and then blocks of stone were transported and placed. An outer casing was then used to smooth the surface. Although it is not known how the blocks were put in place, several theories have been proposed. One theory involves the construction of a straight or spiral ramp that was raised as the construction proceeded. A second theory suggests that the blocks were placed using long levers with a short angled foot. The online Wikipedia Encyclopedia says, "There is enough blocks in the pyramid to build a wall 10 foot tall, all the way
the country of France" (Seven 1). The Great Pyramid is one of the most important because it has withstood weather conditions and aging."
Tags: civilization, monuments, pyramid, history, construction
Abstract This paper covers the history of Athenian democracy, dealing with the foundation of democracy in ancient Athens, from Solon to Pericles. It argues that Kleisthenes should be considered the father of democracy because he did more than any other Greek leader to create a truly democratic state. Using Robert A. Dahl's five criteria for democracy: effective participation, effective participation of all, control of the agenda, enlightened understanding, and voting equality, along with available archeological evidence, it shows that although there were many Greek leaders who furthered the cause of the Athenian citizen, it was Kleisthenes? reforms that paved the way for a true democracy and an end to the aristocratic rule of Athens.
From the Paper "Upon assuming power, Kleisthenes instituted a number of reforms. He began by breaking up the old aristocratic power structure which was dominated by the four Ionian tribes of Attica. He replaced these with ten new tribes in an attempt to displace the factional differences that had previously divided Athens politically. The ten tribes would become the cornerstone of Athenian democracy, as they formed the basis for the selection and organization of all political and social structures. Kleisthenes also organized the people into local demes, which became the new basis for Athenian citizenship, and was structured around individual towns or neighborhoods within a city."
Abstract This paper discusses and contrasts the main religions of three civilizations which shaped world history - the religions of ancient Mesopotamia, Greece and Egypt. The paper provides reflections on god/human relations and the way people gods were perceived in different societies.
From the Paper "In the kingdom of Egypt, beliefs were different because of its isolated position. Situated in a river valley, surrounded by deserts, Egyptians hardly knew what invasion meant. The Nile, with its mild and indescribably fertile floods, gave the habitants of this region assuredness that the gods were with them. The climate was warm and humid, natural disasters were extremely rare. In other words, the gods loved people, and people loved them; in The Leiden Hymns for example, Amon Ra, was described as the ?all powerful one (yet kindly, / whose heart would lie open to men)? (Norton Anthology 45)."
Abstract Ancient Egypt had a significant impact on early Greek culture, as can be evidenced by enduring artifacts. Egyptian sculptures, primarily created for the pharaohs or high-ranking officials and essentially religious in function, significantly influenced the form and style of statues of the early Archaic Age. Poses were rather rigid and very conventional and facial expression was confined to the typical Egyptian half smile. The paper shows that over time, Greek artisans began developing their own approach. By the late Archaic and definitely prior to the beginning of the Golden Age or Classical Period, artwork started to reflect evolving philosophies and ideals and to celebrate the human figure. Sculptures portrayed more elaborate features and less static stances.
From the Paper "The statues also represented the society's hierarchy. At the bottom of the rung were the slaves, tomb builders and farmers. Further up came the craftspeople, educators, doctors, noblemen and priests. The pharaoh filled more than the role of king and ruler. He was considered a god on earth. (Grant 1990, 23) Egyptians used the size of their statues to illustrate the social order. The pharaoh was larger then life size, scribes and court officials life size and workers and peasants always shown working. The images of the pharaoh, always larger than life, made him appear all the more god-like. The large works of sculpture were often displayed at temples that were built for the pharaoh's chosen deity."
Abstract The Neanderthals were an early race who lived in Europe and probably West Asia between 120,000 and 35,000 years ago. This paper looks at the fossils found from 1856 who tell the story of the Neanderthal's travelling through Europe and Asia. It looks at the three conflicting theories between scientists who disagree over their interpretations about what constitutes the characteristics of a Neanderthal. Other aspects discussed in the paper include anatomical characteristics, tool-making techniques and cultural rituals.
From the Paper "Scientists who examined the fossils disagreed in their interpretations. German anatomist Rudolf Virchow was the first to study these fossils and believed that they decidedly belonged to a homo sapiens with rickets, a physical condition that results from the lack of Vitamin D (Browning). Virchow also suggested that the Neanderthal man's flattened head was the outcome of powerful blows. As more fossils got discovered, the belief that they belonged to a sub-human species developed.
After many skeletons were dug out, French paleontologist Marcellin Boule advanced the theory that Neanderthals could not fully extend their legs, walked in stooped posture, and with their heads thrust forward. The concept was popularly accepted for approximately 50 years, after which Boule's theory was appraised by researchers. They concluded that Neanderthals did not walk in stoop posture but rather upright but stooped because of arthritis (Browning). Some scientists considered them a subspecies of homo sapiens, to which contemporary human beings belong today. This assumption was based on the differences in anatomy between the Neanderthals and the homo sapiens."
Abstract As will be seen, while the two buildings were projects of Roman emperors designed to serve a spiritual purpose as well as to reflect the values of their respective communities, the buildings are radically different in design and function. It will be argued that these differences are due to both the different architectural periods in which these buildings were constructed, as well as the differences in the functions that they were intended to serve.
Abstract The present paper considers Minoan Culture in the context of the Bronze Age and as one of three principal cultures of Aegean civilization. In what follows, this paper elucidates the significance of this culture, noting its contributions to arts and architecture, and as a precursor to Greek civilization.
Abstract The rise of Islam, the fall of Rome, and the complications of Christianity in Europe and Africa are all intertwined. Next came Roman reception of Greek culture. The military and political conquerors adapted to their own society features of the Greek culture they dominated. While Europe received politics from Africa, Africa received religion, in part from Europe.
