Abstract In this paper the author looks back in time to the origins of writing and notes and shows that there is new archaeological evidence to suggest that the cuneiform system of writing existed even prior to the Sumer. The author then moves on to examine Egyptian forms for writing and various Semitic languages.
From the paper:
"More than 300 clay tablets with a variety of images on them have already been discovered by Dreyer. Among the symbols found on the tablets are scorpions with trees, scorpions with plants, stylized birds, dogs and fish and various other decorative plant-forms".
Abstract A study of the literacy culture of the Bronze Age society and how the scribes and drawings were a reflection of the society. A technical analysis of linguistics in the pre-historic culture is included.
From the Paper "Anthropologists and archaeologists call certain societies "iron age" or ?bronze age.? In doing this they recognize that the properties of the main metal used by a society's technology greatly affect both its use and through this the nature of that society. For instance, bronze unlike iron is too soft to be used for ploughing; it is an alloy. Bronze can be smelted at lower temperatures than iron which need specialized supplies of charcoal. All these facts affect societies which use bronze and iron. For example, since bronze cannot be used for ploughing these societies cannot produce in many regions the large agriculture surplus iron societies can; since bronze requires tin bronze age societies had to trade, etc. (Claiborne, 1974) I believe the same parallel exists between the different characteristics of different writing systems and its use as a communication technology in a society. "
Abstract This paper is an in-depth examination of the archaeological and historical importance of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher. The paper examines its importance to Christianity and its place in history. The author goes into great detail as to how the church was first built, and who was responsible for its initial construction. The church changed hands several times, and this is covered as well. The Church and its history is intertwined with that of the city where it is located, Jerusalem, a point that is emphasized throughout this paper.
From the Paper "It was there that she identified the place as the crucifixion site of Jesus and the emperor decided to mark the importance of this site by building a shrine there. This shrine became the holiest religious place for Christians and was named the church of the holy Sepulcher. John L. Lyons (1997) writes, ?In the vicinity, directly under the temple of Venus erected by Hadrian, Empress Helena claimed to have found the cross upon which Jesus died. Constantine had the Church of the Holy Sepulcher built over the proposed site of the Crucifixion, burial, and resurrection. Various Christian groups, including Greek, Latin, Coptic, Jacobite, Armenian, and Ethiopian ones, have tended to the church over the centuries, and each controls some aspect of its present form.? But this religious site has not been revered by all, as over the period of time, it was destroyed and rebuilt quite a few times as rulers of Jerusalem changed."
Abstract An examination of the health and medical systems of Ancient Mesopotamia. The concept of sickness is defined for this time period and those who treated the sick, the medical practitioners, are discussed. The paper also looks at the monetary payment structure for medical services and the subsequent penalty structure if payment was not made.
From the Paper "During the past century, the rise of modern medicine and biotechnology has been astronomical. Scientists have engineered artificial limbs and organs, developed vaccines for numerous diseases, discovered preventative medical strategies, and created procedures to deal with most known ailments. Specialists have arisen in many fields and a complex payment structure involving insurance and HMOs has been established in modern times. Given this, it is interesting to notice that several of these same features were present in the medical world of ancient Mesopotamia. Of course, the Mesopotamians did not have the levels of understanding that exist today, but it appears that their knowledge was much greater than one would initially assume."
Tags: ancient, care, code, hammurabi, health, history, medicine, mesopotamia
Abstract The paper shows how the subject of sex was an important part of life in ancient Egypt and that fertile women were considered the most attractive. The paper discusses ancient medicine, treatment of infertility, midwifery and childcare, cancer and gynaecological procedures. The author notes how advanced Egyptian medicine was even in today's standards.
From the Paper "Advances made in ancient times regarding midwifery are still used today. In ancient Egypt, midwives frequently used potions and herbs to assist during pregnancy and labor to reduce the pain and induce labor, if needed. Many of these potions and herbs were helpful in forming the foundation of modern medicine.
"In ancient Egyptian tomb paintings, midwifery is always depicted as a female duty. These paintings show that two midwifes participated in a woman's labor. One attended to the mother while the second attended to the unborn child. Pregnant women and new mothers in ancient times believed that the best way to learn was under the supervision and expertise of seasoned midwives. Even today, many pregnant women seek out experienced midwife but most women use the assistance of midwives with the advancement of science and technology."
Tags: Kahun, Gynecology, Papyrus, Nile, Isis, contraception
Abstract This paper analyzes the socio-economical culture of ancient Egypt through the poem, "The Great Hymn" by Akhenaten. The paper describes the poem's psychological manipulation of the Egyptians through superstition. It examines their religious the beliefs and the rule of the Pharaoh.
From the Paper "Ancient Egyptian culture has fascinated the world with its mysteries and secrets that seem unreachable. From the pyramids to the scattered literature, researchers are struggling to uncover the secrets that have long been buried with the lost power of the Pharaohs. Yet, at times with a little insight the culture of the Egyptians becomes much easier to understand than would seem possible. While archaeologists are fascinated with the pyramids it is the sociologists that have realized that if understood it is the literature of the ancient Egyptians that holds the key to the mystery of the past. Consider just one Pharaoh and his contribution to the cultural literature of his times. Through an analysis of just one piece of poetry we can come to an understanding of the socio-economical culture of his times and the values, which the society upheld in its power."
Tags: egypt, pharoh, values, superstition, culture, society, psychological, god, ancient
Abstract This article tries to comprehend works of art and extract information about ancient cultures by looking at and making interpretations of the works. The writer explains that both are ancient works of art which have potential to tell much about their contemporary society.
From the Paper "The coin shows one side of a girl's face garlanded with four dolphins and Greek symbols. She has a wreath of olive leaves. Her eyes are not very intense. Her hair is prettily combed. Her ears seem to be hidden. But the ear-ring can be seen. Her nose is long. She is wearing a necklace of some beads. Her cheeks are large. Her mouth is slightly open. She does not show much feeling except, perhaps, calmness. Yet this is a forced interpretation since the face is actually quite expressionless. This very fact makes the calmness very eerie. It makes me uneasy if I look carefully. There even seems to be a small perhaps dangerous arrow on the back of her hair. She seems to be at one with nature. Perhaps that is what the dolphins signify. The dolphins look pretty cute. Her hair is so wavy. The circular arrangement of dolphins reminds me of the cycle of life. Perhaps the girl was a dolphin in her previous life or will be in her next life."
Abstract This paper briefly discusses how studying Egyptian art proves the need for more use of all the senses in art. It uses the famous picture of the offering bearing to the court official Tjeti. The writer looks at all aspects of the picture to assist in enhancing the reader's senses.
From the Paper "Egyptian art and language are intimately and intricately linked. Egyptian writing is very pictorial --- all the alphabets are really pictures. Each letter is a representation of a sound, like in English. But unlike English, the very shape of a letter or word has meaning. In English, the word "love", for example, can have meaning only in the auditory medium. It's only when it is read and heard that it has meaning. The shape of "love" itself has no meaning. Nor do the shapes of any English alphabet. So, Egyptian alphabets are symbols of both sound and sight. This interplay between the auditory and the visual can make very interesting effects such as multilayered puns with multiple meanings (1)."
From the Paper "Roman North Africa is one of the richest sources of architectural remains from the empire. This good fortune is largely because of to the climate, the subsequent political history of the region, and the fact that some centers, such as Leptis (or Lepcis) Magna and Sabratha, were abandoned fairly early and were soon covered over with sand. The architectural ruins of Leptis Magna reflect the once-flourishing city's history under Roman domination and fall into two general periods--those of Augustan Rome and of Septimius Severus. The contrasts between the remains of the older part of the city and the unusual monumental quarter built by Septimius tell the viewer a great deal about the history of imperial architecture in the provinces.
The city of Leptis Magna was, with Sabratha and Oea (now.."
Examines archeological evidence of pre-Incan cultures' beliefs & behavior related to death, social status, body preparation & orientation and religion.
3,600 words (approx. 14.4 pages), 14 sources, 1997, $ 127.95
From the Paper " The mortuary practices of various peoples can tell archaeologists a great deal about their cultures' beliefs and behavior. An examination of the archaeological evidence from burial sites of the Nasca and Moche people of pre-Incan Peru will demonstrate how such conclusions can be drawn. Burial remains are, of course, incomplete evidence -- even in terms of the ritual associated with death and disposal of the body. But the details of burial sites and the iconography of art associated with them are the only primary sources on mortuary practice. These peoples were preliterate and did not come into contact with literate groups. The only information that supplements the archaeological record is the retrospective comparison of earlier cultures with what was recorded by observers of Inca practice. But there is a wealth of.."
Examines creation, history, geography, sociopolitical and economic factors, land use, design and urbanism theories related to this royal city built in the mid-14th Century B.C.
4,050 words (approx. 16.2 pages), 11 sources, 1999, $ 135.95
Abstract "The site of the city of Akhenaten, the only virtually complete ancient town to have survived from ancient Egypt, lies 160 miles south of Cairo, midway between the modern towns of Minya and Asyut (Weigall 92).
From the Paper "The site of the city of Akhenaten, the only virtually complete ancient town to have survived from ancient Egypt, lies 160 miles south of Cairo, midway between the modern towns of Minya and Asyut (Weigall 92). It is only at el-Amarna that a comprehensive range of official and residential buildings have been preserved, comprising the essential elements of an Egyptian royal city of the mid-fourteenth century BCE. This paper will look at how urbanism theories apply to the city of Amarna.
INTRODUCTION
The city of Amarna (or "Horizon of the Sun Disk") is located on the eastern side of the Nile in Middle Egypt, half way between Cairo and Luxor. The ancient city is formed by a bay of cliffs to the east and the Nile to the west, taking the shape of an archer's bow, with the Nile as the string and the city couched ..."
Abstract This paper focuses on the theme of Egyptian funerary art, illustrating its purpose to link the living world with the after life. The paper describes the Ka, the central life force which sustains one and which needs to be taken care of after death. The wall art and the statues found in Egyptian tombs provides knowledge of the Egyptian religious beliefs.
From the Paper "Religion attempts to answer several basic questions: who are we, where did we come from, and where are we going. Nothing serves a better example of man's attempt to answer these questions than Egyptian funerary art. The theme of Egyptian art is not to portray the living, except to provide guidance for the dead, but was meant to help link the living world with the after life."
Tags: religion, life, afterlife, ka, ba, akh, statues, mummy, tomb
Abstract This paper provides an examination as to how these people imagined the afterlife through daily prayers and customs. For each civilization, the writer presents rituals, festivals and writings from the time in order to help the reader understand the type of lifestyle each civilization lead. In addition there are detailed descriptions of the burial processes and practices for perserving their dead.
From the Paper "In Egypt, death was just a right of passage to the next domain, however in order to die properly, the right spells and incantations must have been performed. As shown in The Book of the Dead, written around 2400 B.C. there were very serious rituals that must be performed in order to pass on properly. These spells and incantations reflected how much the Egyptians expected from their society. For example when an Egyptian dies they must face the gods and must repeat lines from the spell "The Protestation of Guiltlessness". A few lines from this poem are as follows: "I have not committed evil against men; I am pure! My purity is the purity of the great benu-bird"; I have not told lies; I have not trespassed? (as on another's land). These are just a few of the many lines that tell of a persons character in hopes of being accepted into their afterlife. The Egyptians were well known for having a mixture of human and animal characteristic in their gods. For example Seth (desert god) was depicted with a doglike body, long neck, upright tail, and squared ears. The vulture goddess Nekhbet was tutelary goddess of Upper Egypt, while her counterpart in Lower Egypt was cobra goddess Wadjet (Nagle, 28)."
Abstract This paper argues that Neanderthal man is related to modern humans by looking at elements of the Neanderthal physiology, behavior and cultural life. It shows how, allowing for the effects of a harsh, cold climate, Neanderthal physiology is remarkably similar to that of Homo Sapiens and how like modern humans, Neanderthals developed tools and had a capacity for language. Neanderthals also buried their dead, created artwork, had a concept of an afterlife and had a societal structure with strong social ties.
From the Paper "Recent findings on the mitochondrial DNA taken from the right humerus of a Neanderthal skeleton failed to show significant similarities with the mitochondrial DNA of modern humans. According to the study, one sequence of Neanderthal DNA differs drastically from the same stretch of modern human DNA -- about half as much as today's humans differ from chimps. Disparities that large, the researchers conclude, suggest that about 600,000 years ago, Neanderthals branched out into their own evolutionary line. This line was distinct from the line that eventually would become today's Homo sapiens (Suplee A1). Neanderthals were too genetically different from modern man and should thus be classified homo neandertalis."
Tags: dna, skeleton, physiology, culture, homo, sapiens, language
Describes & compares appearance, nature, & importance of the Babylonian STELE WITH LAW CODE OF HAMMURABI, & Greek GRAVE STELE OF HEGESO. Also provides historical overview civilizations from which the steles emerged.
1,350 words (approx. 5.4 pages), 6 sources, 1994, $ 47.95
From the Paper "Two steles from the ancient world are found in the Stele with Law Code of Hammurabi and the Grave Stele of Hegeso, the first in Susa, the second in Athens. A stele is a carved or inscribed stone or pillar used for commemorative purposes. While the term is Greek, the artistic form existed before the Greeks who turned it to their own use, as can be seen in the two works under discussion. The first is a Babylonian relief sculpture, and the second a Greek work. The Babylonian work is the larger of the two, standing at 7 feet 2 inches, while the Greek work is five feet 2 inches high. The two works have similarities in purpose and even form, but the Babylonian work has a secondary importance in that it contains the Code of Hammurabi, one of the most important legal documents of the ancient world.
The first civilizations that emerged in Mesopotamia, Egypt, India.."
