Abstract This paper reviews and discusses Redford's controversial theme presented in his book, "Akhenaten - The Heretic King". Redford's theme contends that Akhenaten was not the enlightened pharaoh historians have made him out to be. The paper points out how Redford, through research and evidence from history, successfully argues that Akhenaten was actually a ruthless tyrant who possessed poor administrative skills and completely lacked a sincere desire to transform the country. The paper further notes Redford's position that Akhenaten did not care about his public and was not exactly a shrewd soldier, and this is what led to his ultimate downfall. Some of the criticisms aimed at Redford's book are mentioned, but the paper concludes by stating that the book is a worthwhile read.
From the Paper "The first few chapters of the book deal with the background of Akhenaten's reign, his family history and how it ascended the throne. The author tells us about Akhenaten's father and the family in which the heretic king was born. This section doesn?t present anything controversial, debatable or shocking. However with Akhenaten's ascension to the throne, the book takes an interesting turn as author makes several insightful and very original observations regarding this period. A large part of this book is devoted to Akhenaten's change of religion and his personal religious beliefs, which bring us to the Aten controversy."
Abstract This paper analyzes the life of one of the most famous rulers in history, Cleopatra. Specifically, it includes important facts of Cleopatra's life and her contribution to civilization. It shows how Cleopatra was one of the most legendary queens in history. She influenced Egypt's civilization in many ways and is still studied today, a testament to her lasting endurance as a monarch and celebrity.
From the Paper "Cleopatra has been immortalized in film, on stage, and in print as a great woman ruler and lover. However, the truth of her story is far different than most of what is portrayed in fiction. Modern readers seem to think of Cleopatra as a sultry temptress, who ruled according to her whims, rather than her wit. However, many historians find this is not the case. John, Bishop of Nikiu in Upper Egypt in the 7th century AD called her "'the most illustrious and wise of women'" (Walker 6). Cleopatra's rule in Egypt would be the last of the famous Ptolemies, and her rule would mark historic changes in Egypt's and the world's history."
Abstract This paper describes early life in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia and how the environment developed. The writer explains the significance of agriculture in bringing the people to live together in villages and sustain themselves from farming near the rivers and waterways. The paper includes details of recent archaeological discoveries in the area that support the claims.
From the Paper "Since the early years of archeological studies, it was thought that these developments occurred concurrently, meaning that they were devised and utilized at approximately the same time; however, recent archeological research has forced this view to change, for it is now clear that "Mesopotamia and its environs were far ahead of Egypt, at least temporarily, some five thousand years ago" (Snell, 178). Numerous village/farming communities in present-day Iraq date back to the mid seventh millennium B.C.E., and the remarkable fortified town of Jericho appears to be even older. In Egypt, the oldest settlements, located near the delta of the Nile River, do not seem to have been founded much before 4500 B.C.E., and furthermore, an urban society like those found in Mesopotamia seems to have never developed there."
Tags: civilization, pyramid, nile, river, village, farm
Abstract Cleopatra was an intelligent and powerful ruler, but she was also a woman. The paper tells the story of Cleopatra's life, from her birth to her death, highlighting the most famous points of her life. The paper mostly concentrates on her love affairs with Julius Caesar and Mark Antony and her time as the queen of Egypt.
From the Paper "When one hears the name Cleopatra one instantly thinks of a beautiful and powerful queen who ruled over Egypt with a firm hand. In reality, she was far from beautiful. On ancient coins she is depicted with a long, hooked nose and masculine features.1 Yet she was clearly a very seductive woman.2 She had an enchantingly musical voice and overwhelming charisma. She was also highly intelligent. She spoke nine languages and was the first pharaoh in the Ptolemy family who could actually speak Egyptian.3 Cleopatra was the last pharaoh of Egypt, but who was the actual woman behind the queen? Was she truly a powerful leader or did her lovers give her power?"
Tags: ancient, biography, egypt, egyptian, last, rulers
Abstract This paper explains how Ancient Egyptians believed that life was but a passageway to the rest of their lives, only elsewhere. Throughout their lives they prepared for this event. It looks at how they believed that each individual had seven components. It discusses how the ancient Egyptians would protect these components by preserving the body and giving it a proper funerary. These funeraries would include mummification and other funerary rituals described in the paper - everything would make a difference in the afterlife, from the care and dress of the body to the materials within the tomb.
From the Paper "In ancient Egypt, death was the gateway to immortality. Egyptians never saw death as devastating, for it was merely "an interruption to life in which afterwards would continue 'elsewhere' " (Hamilton-Paterson and Andrews 16). It was necessary, however, to prepare for death, for the deceased would require necessities for the afterlife. Egyptian beliefs on the afterlife required preparation through a funerary process which culminated in a life after death in the tombs (16-17)."
This paper discusses various theories surrounding the myth of Atlantis written by the Greek scholar Plato in 400 B.C., even today captivating the minds of archaeologists and philosophers.
Abstract This paper explains that the most "extreme" theories say that either Atlantis was no more than a figment of Plato's vast imagination or that the "lost city" was real in every respect. The author points out that the lost city has been rumored to have existed in the Caribbean Sea, in the Mediterranean Sea, in the Atlantic Ocean, in the Aegean Sea and even in the Arctic Ocean. The paper supports another theory, which seems more than likely, states that Plato's epic story was little more than an exaggeration of an historic event: the sinking of Thera, a small island in the Aegean Sea, after a series of massive earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
From the Paper "Thera is again likened to Atlantis through its technological level, which was supposedly much more advanced than other civilizations of the era. According to Plato's Critias (which was actually named after his grandfather), Atlantis was "set apart from other [civilizations] with their countless new contrivances and concepts." This technological power made Atlantis a ruling class, and closely resembles the Minoan culture. The Minoans were a supposedly advanced people who were some of the first to make many uses of the wheel and keystone concepts."
This paper examines the numerous cultural attributes of the Mayan civilization while focusing on the reasons for its eventual collapse and disappearance.
Abstract This paper analyzes the disappearance of the Mayan civilization while focusing on the various theories surrounding its eventual collapse. The writer of this brief yet concise paper details the history of the Mayan culture which emerged in 2000 BC. The Mayan civilization gave birth to numerous cultural progresses such as the establishment of a writing system, an organized political council as well as the introduction of organized religion. This paper examines the theories surrounding the dispersal of the Mayan civilization, when at around 800 AD it was purported to have suddenly collapsed. There have been numerous arguments based on archaeological and anthropological evidence that attempted to explain the collapse of this particular civilization. This paper focuses on several theories which may explain the disappearance of the Mayan people which include climatic changes as well as socio-cultural collapse through the population's expansion.
From the Paper "The theory that argued that a climatic collapse led to the disappearance of the Mayan civilization was based from scientific findings that were caused by a severe drought. As reported by History Today, "[d]rilling samples from the Cariaco Basin off the Venezuelan Coast show there were intensely dry periods between AD 810 and AD 910..." From this finding, it was found that because there had been scarce supply of the people's basic needs, such as water and food supply, Mayan society disappeared, supposedly due to deaths caused by these series of drought. A more specific version of this theory was presented in Kerr's journal article on the scientific evidence pointing at climate changes as the catalyst towards the disappearance of the civilization."
Abstract This paper explains that Pharaoh Ramses II was a powerful ruler, a successful diplomat, a masterful publicist and prolific builder. The author points out that Ramses II, whose throne name was "Usi-ma-re Setepenre" ("Strong in right is Re, Chosen of Re"), was the third Egyptian pharaoh of the nineteenth dynasty. The paper includes a section of "Epic Poem of Pentaur" in which Ramses II describes the battle as a personal triumph under insurmountable odds against the Hittites. The author describes Ramesseum, a mortuary temple in Thebes, built by Ramses II as a memorial to praise forever his military and diplomatic achievements, and Pi-Ramses, modern Qantir, the great capital city. The paper relates that one of the major discoveries in Pi-Ramses occurred in the early twenty-first century when archaeologists unearthed a glass making workshop.
From the Paper "Ramses II set out to recapture Kadesh, a strategically located city in Syria. Ramses II took his troops into the area of Kadesh. While traveling toward the city, he and his first two military divisions became separated from the remaining two divisions that lingered behind him. Two men who had met up with the Egyptian army provided intentionally false information to the Egyptians as to the location of the Hittite army. Believing that the Hittite troops were farther off than their actual location (while waiting for his remaining divisions to arrive) he moved his troops near the city and began to set up camp."
Abstract A look at how "Exodus" records the critical elements of Israelite political and religious tradition and clearly defines the Israelite's obligation to God, defines God, and defines Israel as a nation.
From the Paper "Exodus records the seminal experiences of the Israelite tradition. Although Genesis commences the literal Biblical history narrative, the Genesis events merely anticipate the critical and purposive events of Exodus. Indeed, the Yahwist author stylistically anticipates Exodus by using the personal name of God, as revealed to Moses through the burning bush, before God's name is revealed in the narrative. Similarly, Genesis? thematic focus on sin, forgiveness, and blessing anticipates God's final covenant, the Mosaic covenant. Whereas some Biblical traditions, such as the flood story and the monarchy, are at least corroborated or paralleled by other texts, the Bible remains virtually the sole source for investigating the Exodus events. Consequently, many consider the Exodus, magical and fantastical elements aside, to be of dubious historical validity. However, concluding that central elements of the Exodus, are not, in fact, historic, would significantly assault the integrity of the Israelite tradition, because Exodus records the critical elements of Israelite political and religious tradition. Exodus clearly defines the Israelite's obligation to God, defines God, and defines Israel as a nation."
Tags: bible, commandments, exodus, history, israel, moses, pharaoh, ten
From the Paper "Their book is a blend of archaeology, anthropology, and astronomy and encompasses both the historical world and the mythical world of the Maya. It spans three thousand years, fro-m the Olmec civilization, through the various periods of the, pre-conquest Maya civilization up to the present day. Not only does their book shed light on the religion and culture of the ancient Maya, it also shows a definite continuance and connection between ancient and modern day practices. "
From the Paper "Dennis and Barbara Tedlock have dedicated a significant portion of their lives studying both the ancient Maya and the contemporary Maya of Guatemala. Each is an expert in their own right and each is able to shed light on the mysteries of the Maya people. They both draw their information from the field of archaeology, pre-Spanish chronicles, and contemporary beliefs. When looked at together, the Tedlock's, books create a living picture of both the ancient Maya and the contemporary Maya of Guatemala. "
Tags: archaeology, astronomy, myth, ruins, tedlock, time, maya, culture, history, indian
From the Paper "During the winter of 1963-1964, world renound archaeologist, Yigael Yadin, led an excavation of Mt. Masada. In a research paper, published at Hebrew University, by Hershel Shanks, one of the archaeologist at Masada, three questions are asked that may discredit the events at Mt. Masada: 1) If the Jews did commit suicide, then where are their bodies?, 2) If Titus was a by the book general, then why did the Romans not storm the fort upon breaking through the wall?, 3) If Flavius Josephus was not present to witness the events, then how can we trust his account? These questions are hard to answer, because the only sources that we have are the writings of Josephus and the results of the excavations at Masada. To analyze the events of Masada we have no choice, but to use some speculation to bring all of the information together for a reasonable conclusion."
From the Paper "The study of ancient Israel has been both tremendously advanced and transformed by the use of archaeology. This field has been used to support the historical narrative provided by the Biblical text in some instances, while altering the views of many modern scholars as to what dates the biblical stories are to represent, when they were written, and how historically reliable they are. Although the use of archaeology in the study of ancient Israel has not been able to conclusively support or refute the assumptions made about the time period, as derived from the Bible, it has proved helpful in formulating more well-informed beliefs as to what ancient Israelite society was like."
Abstract This paper discusses the "Book of the Dead", an ancient Egyptian guide to the afterlife. The paper also discusses the archeological finds associated with it and the papyri of the book itself.
From the Paper "The Book of the Dead has been erroneously considered by enthusiasts of ancient Egyptian civilization to be comparable to the Torah, the Old and New Testaments, or the Qu'ran as an example of revealed religious truth?in short, to have been the "Bible" of the ancient Egyptians. A far better modern comparison would be with the older form of the Anglican Book of Common Prayer, which was also a compilation of texts and prayers and contained spells to ward off evil influences."
Abstract This paper discusses the discovery of a Neolithic man in the Otzaler Alps. It discusses the actual discovery, description of how life was during his time period, and the many other findings upon testing this four thousand year old corpse.
From the Paper "Otzi therefore lived during the late Neolithic period. Since his time of life was narrowed down it can be assumed that his community or culture was very active in pottery and other ceramic items. During the time of the Iceman Neolithic farming was taking place. Raising crops and livestock was quite common."
