Abstract This paper offers an in-depth examination of the Olmec civilization, which existed in Central America. This paper discusses the lifestyle and way of life. It looks at the architectural methods, as well as the hunting and food preparation manners. It also discusses how Olmecs were influenced by other civilizations of the time and how, in turn, they impacted other cultures.
From the Paper "Long before the Maya, Aztec or Toltec flourished in Central America, there lived the Olmecs, a civilization that has come to continue to intrigue and amaze the world. They were the most prevalent group in Mesoamerica and a highly developed and well organized society with a complex calendar and hieroglyphic writing system. The Olmecs were the mother civilization in Mesoamerica. The Olmec lived around the areas of La Venta in Tabasco, San Lorenza Tenochtitlan, and Laguna de los Cerros in Veracruz during the pre-classic period. They built their cities around a central raised mound. These mounds, used for religious ceremonies, were replaced with pyramid-shaped structures around 900 B.C. The Olmecs used basalt, found in the Tuxtla Mountains, to construct plazas and religious pyramid structures."
Abstract Martin Bernal, author of "Black Athena", argues that numerous cultural achievements that are, by tradition, attributed to the ancient Greeks, are actually found in Africa, specifically, the Egyptians. Mary Lefkowitz, author of ?Not Out of Africa,? argues that Bernal's findings and assumptions are incorrect. This essay examines both works and discusses the opposing views.
From the Paper "Berlinerblau, in his review of Lefkowitz's book, discusses the importance of academic inquiry unencumbered by political conerns (Berlinerblau Pp). Lefkowitz refers to Bernal as an armchair archaeologist. However, she is not the only critic of Bernal's work (Berlinerblau Pp). Robert Palter writes, "Bernal's rhetoric is predicated, unwittingly"on ignorance and superficial understanding? (Berlinerblau Pp)."
A look at the Maya creation story which can be found in the "Popol Vuh", and acts as a window into the religious, secular, psychological, and environmental life of the Maya people.
1,690 words (approx. 6.8 pages), 4 sources, 2000, $ 54.95
From the Paper "Universal to virtually every human culture is the "Creation Myth or Story." A myth or story created by humans in an attempt to explain the creation, purpose, and existence of life. For the Maya, this creation story can be found in the Popol Vuh. Not only does the Popol Vuh recount the Maya creation story, but it also is a window into the religious, secular, psychological, and environmental life of the Maya people. This view can be applied to both the individual and the society and it also encompasses the cosmic world, the earth, and the underworld..... "
Abstract This paper presents a detailed discussion about the forensic sciences when it comes to the process and philosophy regarding archaeology and crime scene investigations. The writer examines terms and processes to answer questions about criminal investigation from an archaeological point of view.
From the Paper "Turn on the television on any night around the nation and one can find a crime show. We are inundated with crime shows, real time shows and law and order shows. Each show has a victim, suspects, a search scene and then the trial all wrapped up in a neat little time frame. If we watch closely we often see elements of the forensic science in action but mostly its pan shots, evidence found and bagged then on to the next scene. In real life however the discovery and search of a crime scene is much more involved. There are laws that must be followed and procedures that are handled with care to insure the scene nor the evidence becomes tainted or destroyed."
Abstract A paper which introduces and discusses the burial practices of ancient Egyptians. Specifically, it looks at burial practices for rulers, common people and their belief in the afterlife. It also shows the practice of mummification and entertainment at burial feasts.
From the Paper "After the funeral ceremony, participants would enjoy a great feast in celebration of the dead, with entertainment provided by singers and dancers. During the banquet, the body would be placed inside the final resting place in the tomb, and the footprints of the participants would all be wiped away from the sand. Now, the deceased's soul could finally return to the body, and the deceased could go on to the afterlife. A "Book of the Dead" was also buried with the mummy, to instruct the deceased how to cope with various conditions during the afterlife."
Tags: tombs, Nile, 'opening, of, the, mouth', funeral
Abstract By providing an in-depth description of what was found in the Shrines of Tutankhamen, the writer examines general Egyptian history of the era and of Tutankhamen's reign. The paper also explores the shrines from an artistic perspective.
From the Paper "Tutankhamun was one of the youngest kings in Egypt, but his tomb was one of the most detailed and beautiful tombs in all of Egypt. No one knows why such a young king was buried in such an elaborate tomb. It is hard to imagine what the young king must have been like in his years. He lived a very short life and died in 1323 B.C.
?From a dry, dusty, Upper Egyptian valley in the year 1922, the news of the discovery of the tomb of Tutankhamun flashed around the world and excited the imaginations of all who heard it.? On November 4th, 1922, the Tomb of Tutankhamun was found hidden beneath the foundations of Ramesses workmen's huts. They were near the entrance of the tomb of Ramesses VI. The discovery of the tomb was made by Lord Carnarvon and Howard Carter."
From the Paper "This research examines the position of the pharaoh in Egyptian religion. The research will set forth evidence of the overlap and convergence of divine and human aspects of the king in Egyptian culture from the period of the Old Kingdom through the New Kingdom (2686 to 1070 BC, Third through Twentieth Dynasties) with a view toward identifying the ratio between and among the pharaoh's political, religious, and ritual functions and how the reality and/or extent of the pharaoh's divinity was perceived.
Although the character and reach of the identification of the pharaoh with the divine shifted over the course of pharaonic civilization in Egypt, there persisted throughout the Old and New Kingdoms the view that the pharaoh had either divine attributes or divine nature and in either case had and exercised divine.."
From the Paper " When the Italian traveler and adventurer Giovanni Careri visited the area around Mexico City in 1697, he was curious to see the ruins of the ancient city of Teotihuacan, which was then overgrown by jungle. With the assistance of an Indian guide, Careri went to the site, where he climbed the great Pyramid of the Sun and the smaller Pyramid of the Moon. At Teotihuacan, "Careri was immediately reminded of the Egyptian pyramids" (Fagan, 93).
There are many similarities between the pyramids of Latin America and those of Egypt, but the pyramids of these unique civilizations exhibit basic, fundamental differences as well. For example, the pyramids of Latin America have a terraced structure which features a stairway on one side and a temple on top of the pyramid. By contrast, Egyptian pyramids are.."
Abstract Before the notoriety of ancient Rome, Italy was the home of a nation called Etruria, whose inhabitants were known as Etruscans. Unfortunately, bitter Roman or ancient Greek historians have misconstrued the Etruscan legacy, in most cases tainting their accounts with a blatant anti-Etruscan bias. This paper considers why there exists such a lack of information about the Etruscans and further illuminates the extent to which surviving artwork offers insights into their culture.
From the Paper "From excavations at certain Etruscan sites, it is clear that art was a vital part of life. In Murlo, a seventh century Etruscan villa was unearthed revealing that large, painted terracotta panels typically adorned the entrances to buildings. Elaborate polychrome reliefs and frescoes indicate that the Etruscans used colour generously, even from the earliest times (Gore, 701)."
Traces the development of civilizations from Mesopotamia and Egypt and the influence of the Hebrews on their societies, as seen in historical ancient documents.
Abstract Mesopotamia was the land of four primary civilizations: the Sumerian, the Akkadians, the Babylonian and the Assyrians. The paper shows that the Hebrews, like the Akkadians, belong to a group of people known as Semites and from there we can see the influence of Mesopotamian culture in some of the Hebrews traditions. The paper shows that during the same time, civilization began in Egypt. A distinct difference can be seen in the social, religious and political system from Mesopotamia and the link between the two civilizations are the Hebrews. The paper examines historical documents from all three societies - "The Epic of Gilgamesh", first passed on by word of mouth and later recorded by the Sumerians around the third millennium and finally edited and written down in cuneiform by the Babylonians; "Instructions of Kagemni", a set of etiquette amongst Egyptian noblemen and government executives; and finally the Holy Hebrew Bible ("Tanach"). The paper shows how the three societies are linked through proof in these documents.
From the Paper ""Hymn to Aton" reflects the political and social status of the time and adds to the importance of the aid of god to proper management of a territory and the people within. This was the first and only attempt of a Egyptian ruler to a monotheistic society. It could be argued that this could be an isolated attempt or that the Hebrews somehow influenced Amenhotep IV to this change. It is very important to consider this possibility since it would make the transferring of similar traditions between the Mesopotamians, the Egyptians and the Hebrews civilizations understandable.
The role of women is important and well respected in Egyptian civilization, perhaps more than Mesopotamian. The "Hymn to Aton" recognizes the importance of both sexes for procreation. This document is used just as the "Laws of Hammurabi" to better control his territory at a time when the clergy and the multitude of gods and temples are gaining popularity and, obviously, control."
Abstract What started out as an exploration of some ancient scrolls discovered in the Dead Sea region has become a career for some people, a controversy regarding control of the material and a matter leading to interpretation and reinterpretation of central issues in Christianity. The paper examines the story of the Dead Sea Scrolls, describes the controversies and sets forth current findings.
From the Paper "One of the best overviews of the Qumran project is provided by Hershel Shanks (1998). Shanks was part of the basic editorial team, involved with the archeological excavations, and the initial work on the scrolls. He was part of the group which decided, in the 1990s, to open up the Qumran scrolls to general access. He discussed the political machinations of the group, as well as the relationship of the scrolls to numerous. For example, one issue is the nature of the Copper Scroll and whether that is essentially a fantasy or a real treasure map."
Abstract This paper explores Egyptian artwork, using 2 pieces from ancient Egypt which can be seen at the LCMA - Wadjet and Sekhmet. The writer studies the art as it relates to the expression of ideas, rituals and religion in ancient Egypt. The paper uses these two pieces because while the goddesses are similar, each with a lion's head, they are associated with different parts of Egypt - Sekhmet derives from Memphis, while Wadjet is from Buto.
From the Paper "This sort of rigid and bisymmetrical form is seen in both Wadjet and Sekhmet in the Los Angeles collection. The goddesses are similar as each has a lion's head, as noted, but the goddesses are associated with different parts of Egypt. Sekhmet derives from Memphis, while Wadjet is from Buto. Wadjet is considered the protector of the north, or Lower Egypt, and she also has associations with Hathor and is said to have helped Isis protect the infant Horus in the mythology of ancient Egypt."
Abstract The flood story recurs in many ancient civilizations, even in distant parts of the world, though the nature of the story may be very different in some cultures. The paper shows the links between the flood story as told in the ancient Sumerian epic of Gilgamesh and the flood story of Noah as told in Genesis. There is recent evidence that there may have been a great flood in the area of the Black Sea which may have become a continuing tribal memory that was eventually embodied in "The Epic of Gilgamesh" and reshaped to fit the theology of the Israelites for the tale told in Genesis. The paper shows that the two versions of the flood story have many points of agreement, suggesting that they are somehow connected, although in the Noah story, the role of God differs from the role of the gods in Gilgamesh.
From the Paper "In the Atrahasis version of the story, the Flood portion of the text, which is quite damaged, presents a narrative account of Mesopotamian primeval history that parallels the version in Genesis 1-11 inclusively. The Flood Story in Atrahasis is more than twice the length of the Gilgamesh version. While they seem to tell the same story, the function of the floods in the two epics is quite different. In Atrahasis, the flood is a means of population control and a divider of epochs, while in Gilgamesh, it explains how immortality was once granted to a mortal. The Atrahasis Epic begins with the creation of humankind because the labor-class gods are tired of the heavy tasks imposed on them by the management-class gods."
Abstract The paper traces the visits of important archaeologists to the prime destination of Chichen Itza since the 1800s. It also describes the archaeological ruins there that teach us about the Mayan empire and places the location in its geographical context. The paper examines the famous sites of the great Castle, the Castillo and the Great Ballcourt which are all huge tourist attractions today.
From the Paper "Chichen Itza was undoubtedly the greatest Mayan city on the Yucatan peninsula. It stands on a flat plain, and the massive pyramid that stands at the heart of Chichen Itza can be seen for miles around. Chichen Itza was joined by roads to the Mayan city of Izamal and to the seacoast city of Pole, making it a likely hub of trade and information for the Mayan empire."
