Abstract This paper examines the efforts undertaken by the senatorial aristocracy in Rome to preserve its identity between 350 and 395. The paper explains that these efforts were subverted by the political and religious opposition of the East Roman emperors and the Church. The paper looks at how the issue to preserve the Roman Senate's identity was fundamentally a means to restore the Senate to play a political role in the new Empire. The paper then points out that the political reality, however, and the anti-pagan religious fundamentalism made it quite clear that there was no such accommodation for the Roman West.
From the Paper "When Diocletian split the Roman Empire, he sealed the fate of the Roman West as effectively as the barbarians in 476. Yet, as Rome in late antiquity "was for the most part a city without an imperial presence" , there is a particular poignancy to "the sacred Senate" and the Rome of that era. "The city's Senators were, for many authors, an embodiment of all that was venerable about Rome" . Ammanius says that once the interminable civil wars of the third century (235-284) had ended, "the white hair of the senators and their authority are revered and the name of the Roman people is respected and honored" . "The Eternal City" retained its symbolic resonance as the center of civilization even in defeat. "Odovacar...a German, ruled in Italy as "rex" ([and] "maintained the Roman administrative system" ."
Tags: paganisim, senators, symbolic, eternal, city, honor
Abstract In this article, the writer notes that as more and more time is spent on excavating and preserving lesser known Native-American sites, archaeologists are uncovering much older and unconventional historical sites. The writer points out that Native-American burial sites continue to pop up around the country as more and more of the land is continually developed. These sites are providing a much clearer picture of the ancient residents of the United States. The writer discusses that thanks to the work of archaeologists nationwide, these ancient cultures are being preserved through their links with modern day tribes, who are now able to explore their past further. Modern archeology has played a primary role in the discovery, but more importantly the preservation, of Native-American sacred burial sites. The writer concludes that by preserving these sacred sites, we are keeping a culture alive which was almost forgotten; a culture which predates European dominance in the Americas.
From the Paper "Minnesota legislation also protects sites from removal of any material content from protected lands. Any failures to obey such legislation can result in criminal felony charges. The State Archeologist at the Minnesota Historical Society is in charge of excavating and authenticating possible burial sites, showing archaeology's importance in creating and maintaining legislation involving ancient historical sites.
"Many people wonder why the Federal Government and State authorities should spend effort to protect these sites. First, these sites provide crucial details about the American past. They also provide links to modern day Native American cultures."
Abstract This paper explains that, as human evolution progressed from the australopithecines to Homo sapiens, early man began to walk upright, use fire, tools and language and create culture. The author describes the main species known in the evolutionary tract but omits other intermediates for which very few fossils have been found. Of these know species, the paper discusses distinguishing characteristics, what type of tool culture they had, and if they had any type of socialization. The author presents briefly famous archaeological finds. Includes many figures.
Table of Contents:
Abstract
Introduction
Australopithecines
Homo
Homo Habilis
Homo Erectus/ Homo Ergaster
Homo Neanderthalensis
Homo Sapiens
Cro-Magnon
Homo Sapien Sapien
Conclusion
From the Paper "The most famous Australopithecine fossil is Lucy. The A. afarensis fossils were found in Hader, Ethiopia and were about 40% complete, including bipedal kneecaps and molars and front teeth similar to humans rather than great apes. Another famous fossil find was the Taung infant, found by Raymond Dart in Taung, South Africa. The A. africanus fossil consisted of the face, mandible, and a natural endocast of the brain case. Another famous find was the set of three footprints in Laetoli, Tanzania, by Mary Leakey."
Tags: footprints, phylogenetic tree, africa skull origin
Abstract This paper examines "The Egyptian Book of the Dead", writings sealed in ancient Egyptian tombs, which dealt not only with the pleasures of the afterlife, but also with the journey to that other place. The paper points out that this journey was fraught with dangers that must be overcome were the soul to survive to enjoy its eternal happiness. "The Book of the Dead" represented an early attempt to explain these dangers, and also to impart the esoteric knowledge essential to achieving everlasting contentment. The paper adds that the book also furnishes many clues about ancient Egyptian society and culture. It concludes that the book is an early triumph of art and literature, which continues to inform and inspire.
From the Paper "The many faces of the Egyptian spirit world also related to the Egyptian concepts of daily life and thought that are so well portrayed in the Book of the Dead. Many of the copies of the Book that have come down to us were found in the tombs of high pharaonic officials. Their supplications of the divine are frequently likened to their duties as servants of Egypt's god-kings. For the pharaoh was both man and god, the "good god" who walked the Earth, and afterwards died and rejoined his divine brethren. Egypt, like the netherworld, was a hierarchical and efficiently-managed state with king and officials at its helm. As in the Egypt of this world, the dead expected to enjoy the bounty of their fields and herds, and also the labor of their dependents. Many passages of the Book of the Dead relate Egyptian concepts of the afterlife that are also idealized descriptions of Egyptian life on this Earth. By describing such actions or conditions, the Egyptians perpetuated them in the hereafter: "To copy, to forge, to double, to represent was as if the action or state was always in effect, at least that was the underlying desire." And the world that the Egyptians were re-doubling was in fact the one that they already knew in life. Modern archeologists and historians can use the Book of the Dead as a tool to unraveling the mysteries of Egyptian daily life. The illustrations serve as clear guides to the appearance of the Egyptians themselves, their dress and hairstyles - even the colors they preferred. One can also get some idea of the appearance of Egyptian houses, gardens, and the like. Even the food eaten by the Ancient Egyptians is carefully described in the rituals accorded the deceased - "The roast for the double rib is from the slaughter house, thy retch-bread is from the Wide Hall. As a god is supplied with the offering meal, Unas is supplied with his bread." It is a ritual formula that, nevertheless; makes clear the diet of the Ancient Egyptians and also the manner in which the gods were served in the temples. Egyptian society comes through clearly in amid the religious and ceremonial passages of the Book of the Dead."
Abstract This paper explores the differences and similarities between "The Epic of Gilgamesh", one of the oldest recorded writings from Sumerian or Babylonian mythology, with "Genesis" from the Judeo-Christian Bible. The paper argues that one of the main differences between the epic and "Genesis", is the Babylonian view that the gods are dangerous for mortals, and that their laws are irrational and cannot be predicted by the human mind. For Judaism and Christianity, on the other hand, God is the bearer of righteousness and a symbol of justice and everything that is morally virtuous. Nonetheless, the paper holds that there is a striking resemblance between the two accounts. The paper attempts to provide evidence sustaining the claim that the Mesopotamian account of the great flood is highly relevant to Christianity. It concludes that the myth of the flood is valid and incorporated in Judaism and Christianity and also in the collective conscience of the peoples who did not follow Yahweh.
From the Paper "The Judaic-Christian and the Mesopotamian systems of belief are in clear opposition. Christianity and Judaism praise respect and obedience for the divinity as evidence of God's greatness and moral righteousness. God is the central figure of the faith system because He represents all that is good and right thus humanity must obey Him; here obedience is understood as a definite obligation. On the other hand, for Mesopotamians, respect and piety are the result of humanity's acknowledgement that it is both mortal and weaker than the gods. In this sense, the two virtues are not moral obligations, but a practical attitude which serves as an acknowledgement of the superiority of nature in terms of its power over humans."
Abstract This paper describes the Mission San Francisco de Asis or Mission Dolores, located at nearly the geographic center of what is now San Francisco. The paper relates that the Mission is one of 21 of the original Spanish Missions constructed to foster Spanish control over the region and it is the oldest intact nave structure in California and the oldest building in San Francisco, having survived the 1906 earthquake. The paper also points out that this location is said to be the original site of a Native0American village of the Ohlone Nation called Chutchui. Additionally, the paper describes the rich fusion of Spanish, Mexican and American history surrounding this mission. Two photographs are included with the paper.
From the Paper "The cemetery has never been desecrated but has had regional periodical re-internment and moving of bodies for various city projects. The rich history of some of those interred is of course limited to the white, as this was what was of interest to the people in the 19th century, when many of the local interest stories about the cemetery became popular. Famous governors of California and renegades of the region are buried there in addition to the Native burials and the friars of the Franciscan order who toiled and died there."
Tags: franciscan ohlone mystery art, roman basilica
Abstract This paper describes and discusses the Colosseum in Rome. More specifically, the paper provides a history and a physical description of the Colosseum as well as a discussion of how the ancient Romans used the structure and an explanation of the source of its name and its usage today. The paper includes a summary of the research in the conclusion.
Outline:
Introduction
Review and Discussion
Conclusion
From the Paper "Superlatives quickly fail when describing the Colosseum. The encyclopedic entry for the Colosseum (2004) reports that it is a four-storied oval measuring 617 feet (188 meters) by 512 feet (156 meters), much of which is remains standing today; the building featured a tier on tier design comprised of marble seats that could accommodate about 45,000 spectators; in addition, the Colosseum encloses an arena measuring 250 feet (76 meters) by 151 feet (46 meters) and gladiatorial combats were held there until AD 404 (The Colosseum 357). The Temple of Venus and Rome faced the Colosseum (Robathan 84). According to this author (1950), "Recent investigation reveals that there was no colonnade on the side facing the Colosseum. Beneath the platform at that end where the temple stood high above the level of the Colosseum valley a series of rooms has been found."
Abstract This paper explains that archaeologists have traced the human occupation by the Moche of the valleys of the Peruvian coastal plain from the end of the Pleistocene through the development of settled village farming communities and the subsequent rise and fall of civilizations, which took place prior to the arrival of Europeans in the sixteenth century. The author points out that the ability to have control over some forms of production of valued goods and services gave the Moche social status and control. The paper describes the economic, social, family, religious, political and artistic components of the society of the ancient Moche.
From the Paper "Throughout the centuries, the Moche sociopolitical structure developed into an increasingly complex form. In its first years, it was most likely a multifaceted chiefdom organization. This structure was maintained through a sophisticated ritual system run by a prestigious group of priests who, as time continued, based their power on administrators and warriors supporting rulers that controlled vast territories. Moche social organization most likely reached the level of a theocratic state in its peak."
Tags: human sacrifice, polynuclear, redistribution system, ceramics
Abstract This paper discusses the timeline of Moche spouts based on categories proposed by Rafael Larco Hoyle in 1948. The paper first describes Larco's division of the Moche period into five phases and explains each phase. The paper then discusses those who disagree with the credibility of Larco Hoyle's methods for defining the periods of Moche culture. Lastly , the paper focuses on the development of irrigation agriculture on the north coast between 2000 and 1500 B.C.
From the Paper "This changed with the shift to irrigation in the Guaiiape phase, when aspiring leaders had better opportunities for the control and the accumulation of goods. Although the initial costs for building irrigation canals was higher than that of fishing and floodplain agriculture, once in production, irrigation systems dramatically increased yields. Therefore, with the organization and financing of irrigation construction systems, leaders perhaps could have extracted surpluses from canal users to fund additional political activity, such as monument construction, and to further enhance the socioeconomic status of their own households. Irrigation systems also provided more opportunities for leaders to control land and the flow of water. The political consequence was that in the Early Guaiiape phase political leaders not only could have controlled increased agricultural production, but also the distribution of land and water. With these newfound sources of economic power, they could finance the creation of centralized, hierarchical political organizations."
Abstract This paper discusses the Moche political organizations and their key attributes. It specifically focuses on their irrigation systems and how they provided leaders with the opportunity to expand their political power base and economy. The paper also looks at how expansion of political control over food production and distribution may have led to an increased reliance on agricultural and terrestrial faunal resources in later periods.
From the Paper "If it is assumed that "in societies organized around a regional political economy, there is differential access to goods, wealth, power and the means of production" (Gumerman 1997), it can probably also be assumed that high-ranking individuals controlled the degree and social organization of labor, tribute, redistribution and trade of foods, and possibly, as Goody (1982) notes, the technology, land, and water required for producing or procuring foods. In addition, the elite should have had the greatest degree of food choice and set themselves apart symbolically by consuming foods valued either for ideological reasons or for rarity. An increased dietary divergence between class groups might even offer indirect evidence of a foundation for political unrest. (Christine White, et. al, 2001)"
This paper discusses Jesus and the discovery of a 27-foot fishing boat dating back to the first century B.C., concentrating on the concept of the Sea of Galilee.
Abstract This research paper focuses on the 27-foot fishing boat from the first century BC found in the Sea of Galilee that is believed to be connected to the historical Jesus. The paper relates that the topic is linked to the ideas surrounding the historical Jesus, his life, activities, involvements, relationships, and view. The paper further relates that the information it contains also describes the artifact and looks at how and where it was discovered. The writer concludes that without the Sea of Galilee, used as an allegory in many of the parables of Jesus, these stories might have been much more difficult for the disciples to understand however, the references to the Sea of Galilee and specifically to the fishermen's trade lends comprehension to many of the sayings of Jesus, that otherwise would have been more difficult for the people of that time to discern and comprehend.
Outline:
Objective
Introduction
Was This The boat That Jesus Sat, Slept and Taught In?
The Fishing Economy & The Sea of Galilee
The Historical Jesus
Jesus was a Fisher of Men
Why the Sea of Galilee?
Summary & Conclusion
From the Paper "In many ways, the Sea of Galilee is centric to the life and story of the historical Jesus as he called several of his disciples from the shorelines of the Sea of Galilee and they followed him without question. The Sea of Galilee was an important part of the economy in this area of the world during the time that Jesus walked upon the earth and fishing was an important livelihood as well as being important insofar as the food market in this area of the world. Jesus used the symbolism of the fish in many of his teachings, parables and sermons. In fact, the Christian symbol known as the Ichthus is the symbol of a fish, and it is know that during time of Christian persecution following the life, crucifixion, resurrection, and ascension of Jesus that when two Christians would meet they would identify themselves one to the other by one tracing half of the fish symbol in the sand with his foot, and the other, if a Christian, would then trace the other half of the symbol in the sand with his foot thus completing the symbolic 'Ichthus' and both would know that they were in the company of another Christian and that it was safe to talk about Jesus and his ministry."
Abstract The paper states that the valuation of priceless historical and cultural artifacts is not a process guided by specific rules or regulations and in fact is an unstructured and unpredictable process based on various methods and techniques. The paper comments that this results in a comparable analysis technique, with each valuation process being somewhat different from those previously conducted. The paper discusses the valuation of historical cultural artifacts that are from cultures for which there have been no previous market sales. The paper progresses through the three traditional valuation techniques including comparable market value, asset value, and the income method.
Outline:
Objective
Introduction
Traditional Means Of Valuation
Means Of Valuation Of Ancient Cultural Items
Summary And Conclusion
From the Paper "It has been clearly demonstrated in the research that valuation of antiquities has no sure and constant form due to the nature of collecting antiquities and all the questions and concerns that may arise as to the origination of the art objects. Due to the demand for such works of art, looting of archaeological sites and museums has occurred and while rules and regulations have been instituted into import and export laws, there still exists a black market for these ancient art objects. In today's world of art collection, the collector must necessarily ensure that they are not in possession of stolen art objects and should that be the case pressures from the art world and the country of origination, as well as the penalties of law regarding such objects will likely result in a return of the art object to the originating country or culture to which the art object was derived."
Abstract This paper presents a formal art analysis and critique of the Octopus Vase as well as a discussion of the historical and cultural context of the art work. The author describes the vase in great detail and explains how the artist used intangible shapes, unbalanced lines, and unrefined contours to bring the octopus to life. The author discusses the historical background and artistic tradition behind the vase and concludes that it is a superb example of the Minoan culture and a beautiful and unique work of art in its drama, space, composition, motion, line, and style.
Outline:
Introduction
The Image
Formal Analysis
Style
Form
Space
Line
Composition
Motion
Pros of Material
Cons of Material
Pros of Technique
Cons of Technique
Drama
Historical and Cultural Context
Critique of the Artwork
Conclusion
From the Paper "The Minoan Octopus vase is a great example of art influenced by the Aegean culture. The vase is thought to have been made around 1500-1450 BCE of the Late Minoan IB phase. The influence of Minoan culture was prevalent throughout the island of Crete. Crete was the hub of business for wine and oils which were exported in pottery vases in exchange for food crops from the mainland. Because of Crete's position in the heart of the Mediterranean crops and plants were scarce; this is most likely the use ordained for the Octopus Vase."
Abstract The paper explores, from an archeological perspective, how a hunter-gatherer society might nourish themselves in a desert. The paper focuses on the traditional lifestyle of the San people who live in the Kalahari desert. The paper describes how the San people have survived on a limited diet of animals and plants that is lacking in nutritional variation.
Outline:
Bushmen of the Kalahari
History of the San
Traditional San Culture
Analyzing Diets from an Archeological Perspective
Conducting An Assessment of the Primitive Diet
From the Paper "Archeologists spend much time conjecturing about how a certain group of people survived in a particular area. Often, the only clues they have are in the artifacts, or if they are lucky, an intact body. However, it is easy to forget that we have a valuable resource in our search for the hunter-gatherer "secrets" of how to survive in an inhospitable climate. The San, otherwise known as the Basarwa people, live in the Kalahari desert. The Kalahari is a vast desert that stretches over South Africa, Botswana, and Namibia. The San are often referred to as the "Bushmen" of the Kalahari."
Abstract This paper explains that the discovery of the Urumchi mummies in the Uyghur Autonomous Region, in the Xianjiang province of China raised a furor in the West because not only were there mummies in China but also they were created more than 500 years before either Ramses II or Tutankhamen ruled Egypt. These mummies appeared to be Caucasian rather than Asian in appearance probably Celtics who wandered eastward 2,000-4,000 years ago. The author relates that the case of the Urumchi mummies and the other mummies of the Xianjiang region of China has created a controversy in recent years because the ethnic Uyghur Chinese separatists claim that they are descended from these Caucasians and therefore Xianjiang should not be considered a part of China but rather of Europe instead.
From the Paper "The mummies, displayed in the Urumchi Museum, have proven to be some of the most magnificent specimens of any of the Silk Road mummies. They range from a man that was buried with ten different hats amongst his burial goods, to a group known as Three Women and a Child. They are attired in brightly colored textiles, exhibit hairstyles, and fabric patterns that are traditional for the Celtic Tribes of the Bronze Age. From what Wayland Barber has been able to hypothesize from their clothing, and the other goods that were buried with them, they led a nomadic lifestyle that was common at the time, in, many parts of Europe, and Asia."
