This paper examines the Carneiro's anthropological theories of South American archaeology in light of David J. Wilson's recent additions to his research.
900 words (approx. 3.6 pages), 2 sources, 2006, $ 35.95
Abstract This paper discusses the necessity of ongoing research as a tool for building knowledge in all scientific fields. The example of Carneiro's anthropological theories from the 1970's is used in light of new research in the field by David J. Wilson. Wilson's methods of testing previously held theories and building on them is highlighted.
From the Paper "Carneiro's Coercive Theory: In any of the sciences, previously published and discussed theories are important for the continuation of growth and discovery within the field of study. In the social science of anthropology, this manner of building upon previous scholarship is no different than in any other science. Previously held theories are reviewed with and applied to current studies by current anthropologists. One recent example of this can be found in the work of David J. Wilson as he studied archaeology in South America. Wilson tested the hypotheses that were laid out by 1970s American anthropologist Robert Carneiro. This paper shall deal with how Wilson's work related to and built upon Carneiro's Coercive Theory, first defining and laying out just what this theory is, and then studying how Wilson's work added to scientific thought by using said theory. In the 1970s, anthropologist Robert Carneiro was investigating..."
Abstract This six page paper looks closely at the ancient and historical figure of Eratosthenes, who died around 195 BC. He made many significant contributions to the fields of science, mathematics, astronomy, geography, and many others. His discovery of the diameter of the earth has been proven to be highly accurate today. As thus, his work is of lasting importance.
From the Paper "Eratosthenes, a Greek scholar from about 276-195 B.C, is remembered chiefly for his scientific measurements of the earth's circumference. His work, albeit somewhat unacknowledged by his contemporaries, resulted in fantastic scientific experiments which are comparably accurate even today. By looking briefly at his biography, and then the results of his experiments, Eratosthenes will be shown to be both a highly important as well as a highly innovative thinker of his age, regardless of how he was considered at the time of his life work. Born in North Africa, Cyrene, Eratosthenes spent much of his educational time in Athens. In Athens he received the education..."
Abstract Mesopotamia is a region between the Tigris and Euphrates which rose significantly in terms of urbanization in the Old World. Archaeologists, anthropologists, sociologists and Near Eastern historians have shown us how ceremonial, commercial, and redistributive concepts developed in this region. This paper discusses archaeological perspectives on the beginning of civilization.
From the Paper "For example, arguments from Paul Wheatley asserted that the ceremonial centers drew people to listen to the religious texts within temples, which primarily began urban generation. Fustel de Coulanges revived the same idea that Wheatley comprised. In essence, ceremonial centers were definitely established before obtaining economical roles, which took centuries later. Religion provided the authority to bring forth agricultural goods or other resources (Wieroop 24)."
Abstract This paper discusses how in "The Clash of Civilizations and the Making of the World Order", Harvard political scientist Samuel Huntington argues that the modern world should be viewed not as bipolar, or as a collection of nation-states, but as a set of seven or eight cultural civilizations. The paper further discusses how, according to Huntington, these cultural entities are distinct and large enough to be called civilizations, and are fated to interact in terms of their respective civilizational identities, which may lead to a clash of civilizations.
An assessment of "An Epistemological Inquiry into Some Archaeological and Historical Interpretations of 17th Century Nation American-European Relations" by Michael S. Nassaney.
900 words (approx. 3.6 pages), 0 sources, 2006, $ 35.95
Abstract This paper assesses Michael S. Nassaney's article, "An Epistemological Inquiry into Some Archaeological and Historical Interpretations of 17th Century Nation American-European Relations" showing that objective interpretations are based on the current society. According to the paper, Nassaney's article discusses the archaeological records of the Narragansett Native American tribe. His thesis states "I will show that 'objective' interpretations of the archaeological record are ideologically charged while serving to empower those with access to the record".
Abstract In "Dimensions of Imperial Control: The Vijayanagara Capital," Carla Sinopoli and Kathleen Morrison confront this difficulty in archaeological investigation, attempting a more cautious and evidence-based analysis of the sites of power in and around the capital city of the Vijayanagara empire. They begin their assessment, rightly, with a basic ideological assumption about the nature of archaeology of ancient empires: overarching models that describe imperial control and loci of power that are relatively useless.
From the Paper "Archaeology can be a frustrating discipline. The scholars who form the ranks of the world's archaeological institutions spend lifetimes sifting through scant clues to reconstruct the intimate details of civilizations long gone. Mistakes are easily made. Evidence is easily misinterpreted. It takes years of pointed training to develop the practical and intellectual skills to draw some meaningful conclusions regarding the characteristics of the ancient world. It's somewhat akin to trying to solve a murder mystery with only the briefest of clues that happened thousands of years prior. (In fact, Bob Brier--a famous Egyptologist--did just that, working to solve what he concluded was the murder of Tutankhamen)."
Abstract In this article, the writer describes the different modern technologies that are utilized by archaeologists. The writer discusses how such technologies affect the historical values of the artifacts discovered.
In this paper the writer determines the impact of the technologies on the future of archaeology. Further, the writer discusses the various advantages and disadvantages of modern technologies in the field of archaeology.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
Background of the Study
Presentation
Excavation and Research
Restoration
Preservation
Discussion
Statement of the Problem
Significance of the Study
Objectives
Scope and Limitation
Participants
Research Design
Methodology and Research Instrument
Statistical Treatment
Data Presentation and Analysis
Conclusion
References
From the Paper "Archaeology is a difficult profession. Archaeologists must do constant and thorough research on the subject matter to ensure discovery of real artifacts. In this regard, modern archaeology is now utilizing different methods and strategies in excavation, research, restoration and preservation that are necessary for the development and improvement of archaeology. These methods also include the application of modern technologies such as computers, modern gadgets that are capable of enhancing imagery of the artifacts and equipment that are capable of capturing the uniqueness and richness of the archaeological artifacts discovered.
The future of archaeology will, in any manner possible, continue to be affected by the evolution of modern technologies. Their effects may either be positive or negative."
Abstract This paper is a review and critical evaluation of the Hollywood movie "The Mummy", about mummies, ancient Egypt and archeology. In particular, it looks at how although it has many factual errors, the movie's non-fictional information about ancient Egyptian practices and history are rather precise.
From the Paper "The funeral procession in the movie was also very precise in depicting correct ancient Egyptian practices. Royal funerals in ancient Egypt were grandiose affairs that included offering bearers, priests, and mourners. All kinds of food and grave goods were carried by the offering bearers. Priests would be chanting spells and hymns while burning incense. The coffin of the deceased would be pulled on a sled by oxen, and behind the whole procession were the mourners who would be hired to cry loudly and tear their clothes in grief. All of these specific rituals and practices were successfully portrayed in the 1932 classic when Imhotep shows Helen the funeral procession of Ankhsunamun."
Abstract This paper explains that an ossuary is a bone box, which is often used for the purposes of reburial; the James Ossuary, which was found in 2002, bore the inscription "James, son of Joseph, brother of Jesus". The author points out that, from the beginning, there was a great deal of controversy surrounding the discovery of this particular ossuary especially the fact that the James ossuary was not found by qualified archaeologists. The paper concludes that, while it was from the first century, the inscription on the ossuary was a forgery.
From the Paper "The author [of "Jesus and the Ossuaries"] explains that, since the James ossuary was not found by archaeologists in a properly controlled environment and because of the historic inscription that it bore, there was a great deal of skepticism surrounding its authenticity. The author asserts that initially examinations of the ossuary by epigraphers, geologists, linguists and paleographers, found that the ossuary itself was probably an authentic first century artifact. In addition, they concluded that the inscription was also first century Aramaic."
Abstract This paper examines current issues in archaeology, most specifically the problems in American curation. The author describes the emphasis archaeology places on excavation, yet cites the lack of resources allocated for maintaining artifacts. The author further highlights the problems with storage facilities, conservation of artifacts, and making finds available to the public. The paper concludes stating that the curation crisis is the product of poor planning, idealization of field work versus curation work, and a zealous but misguided approach to archeology as a whole
From the Paper "Entire collections of artifacts across the country are simply vanishing or being hidden away so deeply that they are forgotten about completely, not to mention being stored in substandard conditions that do not preserve them for posterity. Items such as soil samples and bits of charcoal offer a wealth of information, however because they do not have any commercial value on the antiquities market, they are treated as if they are in fact worthless. Unfortunately, archaeological sites are becoming more rare, and as the availability of new artifacts lessens, it becomes even more important to care for the artifacts that have already been unearthed and continue having them available for further research. ("A Curation Crisis") The San Diego Archeological Center defines curation as the care, management, and use of archeological collections. "Care means that you prevent deterioration, management means that collections are organized and accessible, and use means that you use collections for scientific research, public education or cultural use." (San Diego) Curation is a matter of respect for the cultures from which collections have been obtained, as well as respect for the educational value of these artifacts for today and tomorrow, not to mention respect for the amount of work and money that has been invested in these collections. However, this respect is not currently an inherent part of the archaeological or curation process, and while steps are being taken towards improving the current conditions, a new approach must be taken in order to prevent further deterioration of collections and eventually fix the problem."
Abstract This paper takes a look at the supposed origins of man. According to the paper, studies and archaeological evidence show that man first lived in South Africa. The paper goes on to discuss evidence that proves that the remains found there are of humans rather than animals. The paper further discusses evolution.
From the Paper "So we know these African fossils were human, because they had certain body characteristics that other animals do not have. They had a triangular foot, which allowed them to walk long distances upright on two feet. They had a truly opposable thumb which allowed them to develop fine more skills. Their shoulder, knee and hip joints showed adaptations for walking, slightly different from other hominids (human like animals). Their skulls had a larger space for a brain and the patterns inside the skull bones showed more development of the frontal lobe, the one we use for thinking. Finally their teeth were a variety that allowed them to eat all kinds of food. They had sharp teeth for cutting meat and vegetables, double pointed teeth for tearing and large grinding teeth for mashing up seeds and plants."
Abstract This paper takes a look at the lives of Woodland Indians. According to the paper, the study of Woodland Indian culture is difficult, the reason being a lack of evidence. Many artifacts and remains were destroyed by amateurs lacking the skills to preserve the evidence. However, archaeologists were able to substantiate an entire society's way of life by tracking and analyzing how much chert was to be found in rocks and stream beds.
From the Paper "They also left weapons, including; arrowheads, axes, spearheads and knives of many different shapes and sizes. A well trained archeologist would be able to glean much information from these artifacts if allowed to discover them in their context. The museum also displayed how the Woodland Indians played and hunted."
"One display showed how hunting was their main source for food and also supplied them with skins for clothing and bedding to keep them warm during the winter. That same display informed us that the Indians played many games, including lacrosse. There were some games that only the woman played, while the men also showed off their skills at archery and spear throwing. Dice was also popular, although they probably did not use the same type of manufactured dice that we use today. "
Abstract This paper discusses the issues surrounding cultural and artistic repatriation, which remains one of the most contentious debates within the international archaeological and artistic community. The paper specifically discusses the Lega figure and the arguments for and against its repatriation, for cultural reasons, to the people of Congo. The paper then draws a conclusion as to the best course of action to take, regarding this piece of work.
Table of Contents:
Basic Criteria For Repatriation
Argument In Favor Of The Return Of The Selected Object
Argument Against The Return Of The Selected Object
Conclusion
From the Paper "However, merely because using the Lega figure as teaching tools in museums to different nations of the world does not justify the cultural loss to the people of the Congo, who originated these works to be part of their religious tradition, not as artifacts to teach the nations who exerted colonial domination over their territories. Also, even if the Lega figures are individualistic, this does not take away from their ritual significance. Finally, the idea that Western art scholars only approved of the Lega after recognizing the individual component added by certain creators shows that the Lega remain judged by Western standards, and not by the indigenous standards of their local community--the repatriation and relocation of the works may be necessary so the world can be educated in the contextual significance of these figures as well as judged by Western standards."
Abstract This paper takes a look at the process of ritual mummification in ancient Egypt. According to the paper, mummification refers to the process by means of which a human or animal body was preserved in ancient times.
From the Paper "The human and animal bodies were usually mummified the same way with the exception of a few things like linen and masks. Natron was used as the disinfectant and organs were usually removed to prevent internal decay. Heart was not removed however since it was considered the main organ of intelligence and hence sacred. Corpses were washed and wrapped in linen and bitumen was sometimes used for preservation. This was the practice during the Late Period and linen was normally provided by family of the deceased. Masks were used to cover the face of the deceased. Royal mummies were usually adorned with masks made of gold and silver while in other cases, wooden masks were also used. "
Abstract This paper discusses the Gilgamesh epic from Babylonia, which is believed to be the oldest known work of literature, written approximately in the year 2500 BC. The paper describes Gilgamesh, the demigod who ruled Uruk on the River Euphrates in the third millennium BC. The paper further describes the epic's account of the Deluge, similar to the Flood of the Bible, the artifacts it discusses, which are associated with Agga and Enmebaragesi of Kish, and its descriptions of the nature of heroism.
From the Paper "Gilgamesh is two-thirds god and one-third human and the strongest superhuman who ever lived (Kovacs 1989, Hooker 1996, Wikipedia 2006). The gods are disturbed by the extent of his might and his people, by his harshness and abuses, so that the gods send the wild man Enkidu to rival and handicap him. But Enkidu loses his strength by giving in to the seduction of the temple harlot Shamnat, who introduces him to a civilized life in Uruk, instead. There Enkidu engages into a losing fight with Gilgamesh when Enkidu tries to champion the rights of the people against their leader. But in the end, the two become friends. Gilgamesh goes on a victory spree and now wants to cut down cedar trees to construct the gate of his city. In order to do so, they have to combat and eliminate the guardian of the cedar forest, the demon Humbaba, which Gilgamesh is able to do with the help of Enkidu and the god Shamash. Despite Humbaba's appeal, Gilgamesh cuts off Humbaba's head on the prompting of Enkidu. But before dying, Humbaba curses Enkidu (Kovacs, Wikipedia, Hooker)."
