Abstract This paper examines how the prehistoric human background of Europe began tens of thousands of years ago in the latter part of the Stone Age. It looks at how ancient man, beginning roughly during the Upper Paleolithic Period, circa 32,000 B.C.E., evolved from a primitive and animal-like being into one that could construct and use tools, build shelters and create early forms of societal structures that eventually led to the rise of towns and cities along the rivers and coastlines of ancient Europe.
From the Paper "The Stone Age is usually divided into the Paleolithic ("Old Stone") and Neolithic "New Stone") Ages; the end of the Paleolithic and the beginning of the Neolithic is thus placed about ten to twelve thousand years ago. During the long Paleolithic Period, human beings roamed throughout Europe, searching for food as hunter-gatherers, and often migrated great distances in order to follow large game animals or locate more abundant sources of wild plants. At least as early as 50,000 years ago, the type of Paleolithic human beings known as Neanderthals, named from the remains found in the Neanderthal Valley in Germany, spread over Macedonia and then into Greece as far south as the Peloponnese peninsula."
Abstract The paper begins with an introduction then moves on to discussing the bathhouses of Pompeii, the Frigidarium, Caldarium and Tepidarium and their significance. Then the paper moves into the subject of the public baths and the associated extravagance, excess and theft. The paper also includes a discussion of Bath, England and concludes with the effects that Christianity had on the baths and the effects of the fall of Rome.
From the Paper ""The gong that announced the opening of the public baths each day was a sweeter sound, than the voices of the philosophers in their school" (Roman Baths, par. 2). This was written by Cicero to describe just how important the baths were to the ancient Roman people. The Ancient Roman Empire was extremely vast; at its peak the Empire controlled much of Europe, along with Asia Minor and Northern Africa. They were extremely innovative people who built many structures, as well as infrastructure, some not surpassed until the mid twentieth century. Public toilets were installed to help keep the empire clean and sanitary while sewage systems were constructed to carry waste and water away from the cities (public health par. 4). Living in relative comfort, ease, and cleanliness was important to the citizens of Rome consequently; the Romans built a large system of public health works. The Romans had no concept of germs but they still tried their best to keep themselves clean. The Romans were also practical people and believed that the prevention of disease was just as, if not more important than, the cure of disease itself, an example of this are the swamplands in Rome (public health par. 1). The Romans found that environment plays an important role in health, when they observed that people who live nearer to swamps and marshes contract disease more often then those who live in grasslands or cities (public health par. 2). A result of this would be the draining of many swamps and the subsequent building of temples to the Gods in close proximity to the swamps in order to appease the Gods (public health par.3). The great public bathhouses of the Roman Empire were important social structures as well as a place to keep disease at bay."
This in-depth paper analyzes the prehistoric development of the African continent while focusing primarily on the development and evolution of man in this particular region.
Abstract This paper examines the published archaeological evidence and research that proves humans lived in Africa more than 3 million years ago. The writer of this paper traces the origins of the first humans in prehistoric Africa to the grassland regions in the east. The writer delves into the prehistoric cultures of Africa while also discussing the cultural and linguistic evidence that shows that certain societies such as the Bantus and Zulus came from the north and migrated southwestward to set up their own communities. This paper explores the development that occurred during the late Stone Age era which brought about additional settled societies throughout the continent. This paper analyzes the manner in which prehistoric cultures and societies functioned in Africa. The writer stresses that during the evolution of man evidence of specialized tools were found to have been created to cope with a new range of environments and circumstances which are clearly detailed in this paper. The writer also examines how the issue of gender was viewed during the prehistoric era. The writer contends it was likely that the traditional division of labor was evident during this particular era in which men hunted while women defended the camp and cared for the family.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
Analysis
Conclusion
References
From the Paper "Part of the reasons, for some of the methods adopted, were geographic in origin. At the same time, the country is now broken up in 50 different countries and there is a wide difference in sizes among them, both in terms of area as also in terms of population. At the same time, the continent is huge enough to contain United States, China, India and Argentina together. The diversity and difference from other continents is sustained by the fact that it is bisected by the equator. There are many different types of lands, but the greatest portion of it is either desert or open plains. The continent also has snow capped mountains in Mt. Kenya and Mt. Kilimanjaro. The continent also has four different river systems of the Nile, Niger, Congo or Zaire and Zambezi. As was the situation in other world regions, human development in Africa also first took place in areas where there was good availability of natural resources in the form of soils and required water supply."
Abstract This paper explores the cultural accomplishments and legacy of the Mayan Empire. The paper demonstrates how their system of higher mathematics and geometry allowed them to build palaces, public buildings, athletic arenas, monuments, pyramids, pottery, jewelry and other various art forms, all without the benefits of modern technology. The paper also examines the archaeological evidence left behind by the Mayan Empire, discussing their creation of whole cities based on stone technology, as well as discovered artifacts that demonstrate the Mayan's culture and cleverness. The paper concludes with a discussion of the legacy of the Mayan Empire and the continuing Mayan cultural presence in Latin America today.
From the Paper "The Mayans kept time with a combination of several cycles that converged and marked the movement of the sun, the moon, and Venus. Archeologists believe the Mayans began to keep track of time on August 31, 3114 BC. The year 3114 BC is called the zero year and is comparable to January 1, 0000 AD. The Mayan calendar records time in 400 year cycles, which means that 13 cycles of 400 years will have passed before the next cycle begins on December 27, 2012 (1-0-0-0-0 in Mayan time). The Mayans realized there were cycles in the Cosmos. From this astronomical realization came instruments for reckoning time and a calendar that accurately measures the solar year to within minutes."
Abstract An analysis of a Sumerian sculpture known as 'Standing Man'is provided in essay format that discusses how the sculpture reflects various values, ideas and beliefs held by this ancient culture. The paper explores the place of this god in Sumerian culture.
From the Paper The artifact from Tell Asmar known as Standing Man is typical of many sculptures from this ancient Middle East civilization...
Tags: Tell Asmar, gods, vegetation, religion, temples, prayers, Abu
Abstract This paper compares and contrasts the formal and cultural dimensions of the pyramids at Giza and the Louvre. The Great Pyramid of Giza as one of the wonders of the ancient world, and I.N. Pei's pyramid that serves as the entrance to the Louvre Museum are discussed.
From the Paper "A pyramid is not a pyramid is not a pyramid to paraphrase Gertrude Stein". Even monumental pyramids vary greatly one from the other as we can see if we compare the grand pyramid that I M Pei created to serve as an entrance to the Louvre Museum in Paris and the ..."
Abstract This paper discusses the history of Mesa Verde National Park in Colorado. The paper explains that the park was built to preserve the cliff dwellings of the Anasazi people and that it is of historical and archaeological significance to visitors and scientists alike.
Tags: Mesa Verde, national park, Native Americans, Anasazi
Abstract This paper is a discussion of Athenian Democracy under Pericles as made possible by the existence of slavery. The paper explains that the massive slave population in Ancient Greece during this time underpinned the bulk of Greek society and drove the economy that allowed this state to flourish.
From the Paper "The ascendancy of the Greek polis in the Ancient World culminated in Athens in the fifth century BC under the leadership of the great statesman Pericles. Never holding an office higher than that of general, Pericles nonetheless dominated the political landscape of Athens for more than forty years. Under his sure hand, Athens became emblematic of all that many in modern times believe to epitomize Classic Greek culture - a shining glamorous city boasting the acropolis, the Parthenon and countless other marvels of architecture - a paragon of participatory democracy."
Tags: pericles, democracy, polis, Ancient Greece, athens, athenian democracy, slavery
Abstract This study discusses the Pre-Cambrian Period, roughly some two billion years ago, and in particular, fossils that have been found from that time period. The paper discusses three types of fossils that have been left behind -- body, trace and chemical and that these can be readily found within rocks formed during the Archaean and Proterozoic Periods.
From the Paper "During this time, a number of life forms emerged and left behind three types of fossils--body, trace and chemical, which can be readily found within rocks formed during the Archaean and Proterozoic Periods. Some of these fossils are actual cellular remains, something which Donovan admits is extremely rare in rocks of this age. The oldest have been dated as about 3.5 billion years and can be found in cherts from the Warrawoona Group near the North Pole, being northwest of Australia, and in the Onverwacht Group in eastern Transvaal (South Africa)."
Abstract The paper describes how in Greek mythology there is only one sphinx, in Egyptian mythology there are many sphinxes, but the symbolic representation of the sphinx in both these mythologies is completely the opposite. The paper analyzes how the Greeks wanted to bring awareness to the people that women were symbols of destruction and therefore should not be given a voice, suppressing the voice of the woman. The paper further discusses how the Egyptians did not associate the sphinx with destruction and for them it was a symbol of protection, they used the image of the sun god and then there are others who say that the Great Sphinx of Egypt was just a portrait of the pharaoh. The paper concludes that hybridization of a human face with an animal's body also represents that the human intellect can control raw power and use it for its benefits.
From the Paper "The faces of their sphinxes were the faces of their kings and thus it showed the king as being invincible and wise. The function of the Sphinx in Egypt is a hotly debated topic. In Egypt lions were also figures of guardianship and thus some claim the sphinx to be built to guard the Giza plateau. Others hold on to the much common theory that the sphinx had the face of the pharaoh Khafre and thus was his portrait. Yet there are others who say that because the lion was a symbol of the sun therefore they relate the sphinx with some solar cult. Ra was the Egyptian sun god who had a son called Horus."
Abstract The ancient empires of the Mediterranean were the Persians, Macedonians, Romans, Byzantines, Arabs, and Ottomans. The desire to control the world was one of the leading factors in the downfall of different Mediterranean empires. The paper shows that three specific political trends that led to the decline of the Mediterranean empire and the rise of the Western European hegemony are related to religion, cultures, and military.
From the Paper "The Mediterranean region is one of the most important in world history and it is the origin point of Western Civilization" (History Mediterranean p. 1). The ancient empires of the Mediterranean were the Persians, Macedonians, Romans, Byzantines, Arabs, and Ottomans. The desire to control the world was one of the leading factors in the downfall of different Mediterranean empires. Three specific political trends that led to the decline of the Mediterranean empire and the rise of the Western European hegemony are related to religion, cultures, and military. The Persian Empire Who were the Persians? What roles did they play in ancient empires of the Mediterranean? What caused their downfall? These questions are important in the study of ancient Mediterranean history and what were the causes of their downfall. "The Persians created an empire, the largest yet seen in the ancient world, 3,000 miles."
Abstract Whatever the degree to which individual people embraced their leaders as literal gods or divine fountainheads, it is clear that such cults played a tremendous role in the religious and political development of ancient societies. The paper shows that this was especially true for Hellenistic Greece and the Roman Empire, both of which existed under these cults - the former providing much of the historical and ideological groundwork for the latter.
From the Paper "The ruler cults of ancient Greece and the later imperial cults of ancient Rome are much-debated topics in classical studies. Historians have long struggled to understand the role that these cults played in the construction of these societies both at the ideological and practical, day-to-day levels. The debate most often revolves around the degree to which these cults could be considered religious institutions at all (Harland par. 1-2). Many critics feel that these cults were little more than opportunistic attempts to manipulate politics in these societies. Others argue that these cults, whatever their political machinations, actually did have religious basis."
Abstract The paper analyzes Ronald Wright's book "A Short History of Progress", 2004. The paper discusses how Wright examines the history of civilizations in terms of cultural stagnation by tracing examples from the Stone Ages, to the Middle Ages, to Contemporary society. He looks at how civilizations today are not much different in terms of evolution and progression.
From the Paper T"he book "A Short History of Progress" written by Ronald Wright discusses the patterns of progress and disasters in humanity since the Stone Age and examines the inherent dangers of cultural stagnation. Wright traces the progression of civilization throughout the years from the Stone Ages to today. His book provides evidence from history that is compelling and thought provoking. Wright's central argument is based on the notion that rise and fall of civilizations past demonstrate self-destructiveness, thus provides a glimpse into the future for civilizations to come."
Abstract The paper describes how, through the ages, it has become evident that ancient civilizations had methods of creating structures that are unexplained, even to this day. The paper discusses how the manner in which astronomy affects archeology verifies this contention. The paper examines ancient observatories such as Chaco Canyon, Machu Picchu, and Chichen Itza, which have given science the means to explore the methods practiced by ancient societies in correlating the existence of their societies with the heavens.
Abstract The paper discusses how, in the study of history, the "ways of knowing" the past of an object, a culture, or an event is a difficult and highly subjective challenge. The paper examines how the historian's methods are characterized by their own perspectives and objectives, and this quite often occurs in ways that are not consciously recognized by the historian. The paper further examines how this distortion is a highly problematic issue, for the study of history is essential to the understanding of both the past and the present, and also to shed light on many possible futures. This paper approaches the issue of multiple "ways of knowing" as applied to the study of history, with the purpose of clarifying the need for minimized personal perceptions and interpretations within the context of historical research and the teaching of social studies to the next generation.
