Abstract This paper takes a look at one of the greatest wars fought in the history of Greece, the Peloponnesian War. The paper explains that while both the opposing sides, the Athenians and the Spartans, controlled a great deal of land and sea power there were actually rather few direct confrontations and this lack of direct confrontations made the battle of Amphipolis all the more important as well as a turning point in the war. The paper explains the significance of this battle by looking at how the war had progressed up to the point of the battle of Amphipolis, by examining the military strength of the warring Athenian and Spartan factions and by explaining the history of the Amphipolis war and the circumstances that made it so devastating.
From the Paper "The first major explanation for the battle of Amphilpolis's importance as a turning point is the loss of military leaders during its battle. When Cleon, the commanding general of the Athenian land forces marshaled a massive army outside of Amphilpolis to reclaim the city, Brasida also amassed a large army of almost 2000 hoplites and 300 cavalry inside the walls of Amphipolis. When the battle appeared imminent however, Brasida confused Cleon by withdrawing from battle and refusing to fight on the fields outside of Amphipolis. Thinking that the army of Sparta would not come out to fight, Cleon began to withdraw his troops, only then did Brasida storm out of the walls and attack the hapless soldiers of Cleon. In this attack Cleon was killed by one of the commanders of the Spartan forces and in its escape more than 700 Athenians were killed by the onslaught. This resounding defeat was devastating in its numerical loss because the main force of the Athenian army was devastated, but even worse; the most competent general of the Athenian military staff was also killed."
Abstract This paper details the fascist regimes in Europe that used archeology as a means to justify and solidify the policies of political leaders and that the abuse of this science continues to this day. This paper centers on Germany's Nazi regime and their manipulation of past history in their rise to power. The research in this paper shows that the Nazis used archaeology not only to justify their claims of superiority but also for oppression and torture. The writer concludes that while archaeology explores the past it will always be subject to manipulation by political leaders who want to legitimize their nationalistic agendas.
From the Paper "The Nazis did not just use archaeology to justify their claims of superiority, they also used it to oppress and torture other people. They would go on to use pseudo-science to justify their morbid hatred for the Jews. "The Ahnenerbe had a special section known as the Institute for Scientific research for Military Purposes." (Epstein 31) This section carried out horrible experiments on live human prisoners from Dachau and other concentration camps. With these experiments, the Nazis invented anthropological evidence to suggest that it could be proven that Jews were an inferior race by measuring the size of their head. These beliefs combined with Hitler's call for Aryan pride roused a genocidal fury among Germans. For example, the administrator of the Ahnenerbe, Dr. Wolfram Sievers, became heavily involved in medical experiments on Jews who had been thrown in concentration camps. His tests were specifically meant to prove racial differences and the superiority of the Aryan race."
Abstract This essay surveys the literature for opinions on the purpose of the mysterious and appealing marble figures of the Bronze Age in the Aegean islands of the Cyclades. Since the sculptors left no writing, scholars are left to speculate based on evidence from nearby cultures. Arguments from many scholars are compared to try to find the best solutions to the problem. The paper includes photographs of the figures.
From the Paper "Van Schaik points to the fact that too few of the figures were found outside of burial contexts for the figures to be a assigned to a cult of the Mother Goddess like the one in Anatolia. However, as stated earlier, the similarity in form of the Cycladic figures to those of Anatolia cannot be discounted, whether or not one believes that they serve the same purpose".
Abstract This paper examines the Greek goddess Artemis, the twin sister of Apollo, who was associated with the wilderness, with the passage to adulthood and with childbirth. The author of this paper examines Artemis' strengths and the tension between those strengths and those of her twin Apollo. The paper also studies Artemis' role in various community and individual ceremonies, including right of passage ceremonies, primarily for women, but also for men.
From the Paper "Artemis is a huntress who delights in killing wild animals. She should be seen, however, not as a model for human hunters, but rather as the embodiment of the predatory aspect of nature. She protects the very animals on which she herself preys with as much jealousy as she guards her own virginity. Indeed, it is in myths of Artemis that the first association between wilderness and virginity is found. The deadly sacredness of the wilderness and the goddess's virginity intermingle in the well-known story of Acteon, a hunter who crossed the threshold of Artemis's "sacred grove" while she was bathing. He was changed into a stag for his transgression and was torn apart by his own hounds. Even where there is no sexual tension, Artemis frequently appears as the protectress of wild beasts. An Athenian ritual in which girls between five and ten years of age disguise themselves as bears and serve Artemis at her temple of Brauron supposedly originated when some Athenian children cruelly tortured a wild bear. As punishment, Artemis demanded that the girls of Athens serve her. "
Abstract The Greeks were innovators in philosophy, mathematics and medicine, not to mention writing and the theater. The paper questions why, with such seemingly advanced knowledge - even at a time when there already was at least one monotheistic religion (Judaism) prevalent - did the Greeks continue to worship and believe in various gods, prophecies, witches and sorcerers and the inevitable interrelationship among them all with humans? The paper provides an overview of the main gods in Greek mythology.
From the Paper "Mount Olympus, which would be home to the gods, was then constructed with twelve golden thrones for Zeus, his brothers and sisters, his children and Aphrodite, goddess of love. A quick overview of these various gods and goddesses reveals that Hera, often referred to as the queen of the gods, had a very dark side to her, immensely jealous of Zeus' power, and especially his dalliance with mortal women. He punished her from time to time, but they managed to co-exist."
Abstract The paper describes the finding of mummified bodies near Loulan, on the eastern edge of the Tarim Basin in China. The writer explains that originally the mummies were thought to be connected to Chinese history, however, they had many features of western people and are now thought to be from central Europe. The paper explains that some of Urumchi's mummies date almost 4,000 years old and that they are preserved more beautifully than Egyptian mummies. The writer concludes by explaining that the main theme of Barber's book is to explain that the mummies, even though found in Chinese territory, really belong to the west.
From the Paper "The mummies were found to be buried in the desert area and probably in winter season due to which it froze or got very cold and dried out before they could start rotting. When the summer season started, the bodies were already changed into the form of mummies. As the bodies were already dried, the summer's heat could cause any harm of deformation.
"These bodies were placed in coffins lacking any bottom which facilitate air to circulate well this allow the bodies to dry out completely, only few of them, found in nearby locality, were most probably buried in summer season, turned them into skeletons. The highly salty desert accelerated the drying out process, as the salt absorbs the moisture.
"The Urumchi mummies include Cherchen Man, his wife, two other women, and a baby girl wrapped in a beautiful brown cloth tied with red and blue ribbons. The infant was buried with a nursing bottle made from a sheep's udder and his both eyes were covered with a blue stones.
"Mummies found in Qawrighul, a little away form the place where Urmchi mummies were found includes the Beauty of Loulan and a few other mummies, among them was an eight-year-old boy covered with a patterned woolen cloth but his both eyes were covered with bone pegs. The cloth covering the Loulan body seems to be considerably less colorful may be the time factor, might faded its beauty, but even then its impressive in its patterns and weaves, it is knitted."
Abstract This paper explores evidence suggesting that the island of Atlantis, long thought to be a fictional island paradise, may actually have existed at one time. The paper discusses the discoveries of famous explorers of the past and more recent archaeological discoveries in Egypt that all support the idea that the island of Atlantis did indeed once exist.
From the Paper "Deep in thought, the man leans back in the klismo, shifting his weight and rubbing the small of his back. Although cushioned with fleece and animal skins, the heavy wooden chair is still hard on old bones. At a slight movement to his right, sensed more than seen, he reaches out his hand to steady the tall, thin vase his motions have disturbed. He absently pushes the fragile blue pottery closer to the window and away from the small table and chair. Shafts of late afternoon sunshine stream through the open window, bathing the piece in gold. On any other day, the man might pause to ponder and appreciate the exquisite beauty of this mixture of nature and man's handiwork. This day, however, the moment passes unnoticed. This day the man's thoughts are still at the noisy afternoon agora. The need for basic necessities had drawn him to the market, but it was the conversation which had kept him on the square most of the day. Through the years he had witnessed much strife and conflict as his city and his country fell into disorder and decay. But never had he seen such a cloak of dark despair as the one presently falling over his beloved Athens."
Abstract This paper shows that archaeological evidence such as cult-based figurines, ossuaries, buildings and structures and the contexts in which they were found demonstrate the religion and cult practices of the Chalcolithic Era in Palestine. The paper examines several of these findings, including the sites of Teleilat Ghassul and Ein Gedi.
From the Paper "Several of the chalcolithic sites excavated after the 1920's, in which the chalcolithic era was first recognised , are indicative of cult worship and religion, and one of these sites includes Teleilat Ghassul, the first of the period to be excavated . Originally thought to be several settlements because of its scattered mounds indicating settlements , it is now thought by most scholars including Hennessey to be a single, 20 ha site with a religious culture that spread to other settlements in the Palestine region".
Abstract Imhotep was a royal advisor, architect, priest, astrologist, sculptor, poet, sage, engineer, city planner and physician, among many other talents. This paper examines Imhotep's contributions to the development of Ancient Egypt in the fields of architecture, medicine, irrigation and philosophy.
From the Paper "Referred to as "the archetype of the perfect man of learning" (IKOS) with good reason, the list of official titles given to him are numerous and impressive. Found inscribed onto a statue of Djoser, Pharaoh Netjerykhet, Imhotep is identified as a vizier, "Overseer of the Seers," "First for the King," "Director of Public Works in Upper and Lower Egypt," "Keeper of the Seals of Lower Egypt," "Recorder of the Annals," "and "Supervisor of the Great Palace." (Silverman, 178) As an architect and builder, he made a world-changing innovation by building with stone rather than mud bricks, ensuring the longevity of the Egyptian legacy. His construction of the Step Pyramid at Saqqara, the first Pyramid ever constructed, earned him a unique place in history as the first architect with a recorded name."
Abstract This paper discusses and evaluates the Peloponnesian War through an examination of the individuals involved in the war, the circumstances surrounding the war, the culture of the time and the legend of the war.
From the Paper "Although Athens was on a course of reconstruction and economic development the between Sparta and Athens began to deteriorate. In a rather small war between Corcyra (supported by Sparta) and Corinth (supported by Athens), Athens became subjected to a Spartan siege or a participant in the great Peloponnesian War or wars from 431BC to 404BC. Not only was Athens under continual attack from Sparta but also in 430BC Athens was beset with a plague that lasted several years and consumed almost 25% of the Athenian population. However, even with the plague Sparta was unable to pierce the defensive walls of Athens that linked Athens to Piraeus and as such foodstuffs managed to be brought into the beleaguered city Warner, 1954). As a sidebar note, and absent of any recorded historical evidence, the plague that nearly crushed Athens was thought to be the work of the Spartans - by catapulting their own plague afflicted soldiers over the walls into Athens. In an attempt to rid their city-state area of Spartans Athens sent an enormous army of soldiers (415BC) against the Spartans. As a direct loss of the in the battlefield Athens suffered political uncertainty and in 411BC democracy was officially dismantled and the system was replaced by a council of 400 men who attempted to assert control over all Athens."
This paper analyzes how interaction and traces of interactions between humans and animals can aid archaeologists in studying human behavior throughout history.
Abstract This paper defines zoo-archaeology and faunal analysis as the scientific study of animal remains from archaeological sites. This paper presents three case studies which illustrate the practical use of animal remains in aiding archaeologists to understand the past. The writer of this paper proves that it is possible via faunal analysis to establish such findings as diet, social status, religion and trade. The writer contends and explains how the study of animal remains is an effective and productive method of discovering more about the interaction between people and animals throughout history. This paper also contains an illustrative graph relevant to this particular topic.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
Definition and Background
Case Studies
Conclusion
References Cited
From the Paper "Hierakonpolis is a collection of sites dating from the Palaeolithic period through to the Roman period with the HK-6 site being a cemetery. It is the HK-6 site Warman investigates with some interesting finds.
The first point Warman makes regarding HK-6 is it appears animal bones have been deliberately preserved and buried at the site alongside human remains. One such specimen found at HK-6 is of a Bos or cow. Information obtained from the remains is of significance when related to past activities of people at HK-6. Warman states it is the manner in which the remains are preserved and buried that is of special interest in relation to the religious significance past people placed on the site."
Abstract This paper has two purposes, the first provides a collection of otherwise scattered archaeological resource material for secondary education providers and secondly, it considers wider issues inherent in the New South Wales history curricula. The first section of this paper contains archaeological resources for secondary education and includes material from North America, United Kingdom and Australia. While the survey is not definitive, it is designed to highlight current trends in printed matter, visual media and the internet as rapidly evolving resource theatres.
Secondly, the paper provides an overview of the relevant stages and structure of history as presented to Australian secondary students. Description, explanation and illustration of the 'continuum of learning' will assist those uninitiated in educational jargon, and hopefully provide an appreciation of the overall course content. Finally, the paper reviews archaeology as taught in Australian secondary schools.
Outline
Preface
Part 1 NSW Curriculum
1. Introduction
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Stages 1-3
1.2 Stages 4-5
1.3 Stage 6
1.4 Board of Studies Requirements
2. Ancient History Stage 6
2.1 Stage 6 History Course Structure
2.2 Stage 6 History Extension Course Structure
3. Review
3.1 Introduction
3.2 History Syllabus
3.3 Assessment and Examination
3.4 Teaching Archaeology
3.5 History and Archaeology
3.6 Recommendations
Part 2 Resources
1. North America
1.1 Print Resources
1.2 Internet Resources
1.3 CD-ROM
2. United Kingdom
2.1 Print resources
2.2 Internet Resources
2.3 CD-ROM
3. Australia
3.1 Print Resources
3.2 Internet Resources
3.3 CD-ROM
3.4 Video
3.5 HSC - Listed Texts
4. References
From the Paper "For those considering a teaching career, and possessing an archaeological background or skills, a great deal of scope exists within the syllabus for the inclusion of archaeology. A career in teaching HSIE will require a three years bachelor degree plus either a Diploma of Education (Secondary), or a four year Bachelor of Education, or a four/five year combined degree, such as Bachelor of Arts/Bachelor of Teaching (Secondary). Strictly speaking, archaeology is not included in the range of subjects taught in HSIE as listed by the NSW Teachers Association (2003). However, teachers are, 'encouraged to use their special interests and talents to contribute to a wide range of school activities'. Nevertheless, and whilst the course bears the title, Ancient History, a significant body of relevant information comes directly from an archaeological approach, and the archaeological record. "
Abstract This paper discusses a sculpture from the Hellenistic period of Greek art called the "Kritios Boy" (artist unknown), which was discovered in the late 1800s by archaeologists in the ruins of the Greek Acropolis in Athens. The paper examines how this statue represents Greek culture, especially the Hellenistic period, in a variety of ways and styles.
From the Paper "This sculpture clearly illustrates how Hellenistic culture was evolving and changing. The statue includes movement, which makes it a more natural and realistic rendition of people and life of the time. Rather than appearing stylized and even overly rigid, this figure seems as if it could easily come to life, and that represents a great change in style and purpose of Greek sculpture."
Abstract This paper considers the symbolic construction of space and the way space is utilised within and around the Uluru Kata Tjuta National Park. Uluru is a point and the physical interface where Western and indigenous cultures interact. It looks at how the Uluru provides a unique insight into differences between contemporary society and the mores of an older culture. The paper includes graphics.
Outline
People About the Rock
Arid Architecture and Design
Absence of Monuments
Fashions of Fire
Conclusion
From the Paper "The sheer size and bulk of Uluru with hundreds of nooks and crannies provides shelter, resources and inspiration to local Indigenous people for thousands of years. The numerous panels of parietal art adorning both living areas and ritual places around Uluru evidence this strong connection. The association of rock art and oral histories make Uluru 'highly identifiable' with a particular group (Burke 1999), the Anangu who are the traditional owners. Anangu creation stories and symbolic art on its surface bears testimony to the central place Uluru plays in Tjukurpa or the law of Traditional Owners."
Abstract This work examines the valuable role that stable isotope analysis plays in the reconstruction of past diets. The methods used to isolate and subsequently analyse stable isotopes obtained from skeletonized remains is explored. An in-depth discussion of carbon and nitrogen demonstrates their usefulness in distinguishing individuals who had a diet high in either plants, land-based animals, or marine food. To further illustrate the benefit of isotopic analysis, a case study regarding the adoption of maize in South and North America is discussed.
From the Paper "Due to its use in radiocarbon dating, methods of isolating collagen had already been developed before its importance in stable isotope studies was realized (Katzenberg, 2000). There are three common techniques employed in the extraction of collagen from bone. The first method is best utilized on fresh and well-preserved archaeological bone. Initial preparation of the material involves the sample being ground and then soaked in hydrochloric acid (HCl). At this stage, the sample is composed primarily of bone organics and soil contaminants and must be placed in sodium hydroxide (NaOH) (Schwarcz & Schoeninger, 1991). Unfortunately, some collagen is lost when soaked in NaOH but this process is necessary as it has been demonstrated that contaminants may skew 13C values (Katzenberg, 2000). "
Tags: carbon, maize, nitrogen, osteology, skeleton, dating
