Abstract The discovery and the cataloging of the distribution and significance of the Sheela-na-gig and other architectural antiquities through the Irish Ordinance Survey place the interpretation of these sculptures and carvings in an exciting but problematic light. The purpose of this paper, which investigates some of the problematics of the origins of the Sheela-na-gig's, is to flesh out the central aspects of the Celtic heritage of these figures and to provide a basis for more in-depth discussion of various aspects. The focus is the historical heritage and the way in which this debate impacts the interpretation of the meaning and significance of the figures.
Outline
Introduction: The Problem of Historical Heritage
Early Discoveries and the Irish Ordinance Survey
George Petrie: Antiquarianism and Cultural Nationalism
The Importance of Petrie's Influence
Fethard and the Kiltinan Sheela-na-gig
Patterns of Interpretation
From the Paper "The origins and antecedents of the Sheela-na-gig are steeped in antiquity. One prevailing view is that these figures relate to the pre-Christian or Pagan heritage of Europe. There is also general agreement that the statues can be seen as part of the stratified accumulation of religious history, with the Christian religion as the latest strata or overlay of the religious and pagan history of the region. This would also imply that the transition from pagan to Christian was not strict and clearly demarcated, with the result that many pagan figures and symbols were retained within the Christian context. Joan Marler verifies this point."
Abstract This paper asserts that the ancient Egyptian sage Imhotep has two unique claims to fame: 1) he provides historians with the best documented instance of the deification of a man, and 2) he is the first known individual of genius. In a truly ironic fashion, the mortal man who designed the Great Step Pyramid as a tomb for the godlike Pharaoh Djoser was transformed into a god almost 2,000 years later and became the Egyptian god of healing. This paper provides an overview of the sage and vizier, Imhotep, the Great Step-Pyramid and its reflection of the belief systems in place at the time. A summary of the research is provided in the conclusion. The paper includes a photograph of the pyramid.
Introduction
Review and Discussion
Imhotep
Step Pyramid of Djoser and Its Reflection of the Belief System
Personal Reasons for Selecting This Topic
Conclusion
From the Paper "In sum, it is certainly not an exaggeration to describe the Step Pyramid as a one of the most remarkable architectural works produced by the ancient Egyptians. "That later generations regarded it with exceptional esteem is dear, not only from the veneration which they accorded to Imhotep, but also from hieratic graffiti on the passage walls of the southern building, which record the admiration felt by some Egyptians who visited the monument more than a thousand years after it was built" (Edwards 1955:63). In fact, no other known pyramid has been found with the same quantity of imposing buildings designed specifically to supply the needs of the king in his after-life. In their stead, the kings who ruled two dynasties later were satisfied with pictorial representations simply carved in relief."
Abstract This paper discusses the fact that the Anglo-Saxons reused Roman buildings over the time period from the 5th century to the 8th century in the Upper Thames Valley in Great Britain. The paper investigates the towns in this area and analyzes the reasons why some of the towns were brought back to use, whereas others were not. It also examines the manner in which the buildings were reused, the process of change over time and the differences between the reuse of housing as compared to public buildings. Finally, it provides a conclusion drawn from the research.
Outline
Introduction
Manner and Method of Anglo-Saxon Roman Building Reuse
Reuse of the Roman Buildings in Towns of the Upper Thames Valley
Motivation Behind Reuse
The Process of Change Over Time
The Disuse of Housing
Conclusion and Analysis
From the Paper "Past studies have implied that these Roman ruins were important to medieval builders simply as cheap and convenient sources of stone. Building materials were selected according to their qualities and availabilities, and in some instances, because of particular qualities. In many cases, however, the functionality of particular material overrode the aesthetic qualities and durability of a particular material. Research indicates that a building stone used initially because of particular aesthetic qualities may be reused at a later date purely for convenience and necessity. An additional value to the examination of building materials, where it can be shown they are reused is that the presence of reused materials may indicate the presence of archaeological sites that are currently unknown (Windsor, 2004). "
Abstract This paper briefly describes the archaeological find of Elizabeth Wayland Barber and her team of fellow archaeologists along the rim of the Tarim Basin, also known as the 'Silk Road'. The paper then critically reviews Barber's book about the find, "The Mummies of Urmuchai" and the conclusions Barber drew, based on the evidence she gathered, about the geographical origins and practices of the mummies of Urmachai.
From the Paper "The Chinese archeologists who uncovered the gravesite at Cherchen were at first unaware of what they had found. These graves contained extremely tall, apparently Caucasian bodies that were later dated as over 3,500 years old, despite the fact that they were so well preserved. This preservation was not entirely by design, although the corpses were painted with yellow lines that were intended to have preservative qualities. The extraordinary preservation was also accomplished by luck and happenstance-the graves had been cut into a salt bed that speeded the process of desiccation, or preservation by packing in salt."
Abstract This paper compares the Nok art from with other African art forms, and identifies specific traits associated with the Nok terracottas. Additionally, the paper discusses the cultural data these sculptures provide about the civilizations that made them.
From the Paper "Nok terracottas are generally defined by four main characteristics. First, Nok sculptures are created with very distinguishable eye features. The eyes are either triangular in nature, or are a part of a circular form. The eyebrows are sculpted to balance against the lower lip, and often, the eyebrows form a circular pattern around the inset triangular eye frame."
Abstract This paper attempts an overview and discussion of some of the most pertinent aspects of Hellenistic tombs. The paper focuses on their architectural significance, as well as on the related architectural and historical connotation and implications of these tombs. One of the aspects that the paper focuses are the antecedents of Hellenic forms of architecture, their forms design and meaning.
From the Paper "One of the ways in which the art, history and architecture of ancient cultures can be understood and investigated is through what is left behind to be examined. Some of the most permanent artifacts that are available for examination are ancient tombs which have stood the test to time. From these tombs one can not only understand and form opinions of the architecture and historical context of the time, but the content of many tombs reveals a plethora of information and insight into the culture being studied. Many experts concur with this view and emphasize the archelogivla significance of ancient tombs, monuments and burial sites."
Abstract This paper explains that the Dead Sea Scrolls, since their discovery in 1947 and their subsequent translations by numerous scholars, continue to demonstrate many contradictions among the books in the Old and New Testaments, which points to the conclusion that the Essenes and other religious groups at Qumran either wrote certain books of the Holy Bible or copied the text from much older sources that are now lost. The author points out that the Dead Sea Scrolls have strengthened the Jewish faith because they made it abundantly clear that Jewish history as it is related in the Old Testament and in the Torah is quite accurate. The paper contends that for Christians the overall importance of the Dead Sea Scrolls lie in the fact that what theologians and religious historians currently accept as the truth concerning the history of Palestine and the role of Jesus within it may be inaccurate with the result being a complete re-writing of history as it is reflected in the scrolls.
From the Paper "One of the first scholars to actually see and photograph the Dead Sea Scrolls in 1948 was John Trever, who has provided a highly-researched and documented history of the initial find at Qumran. According to Trever's account, three Bedouin shepherds were in the area of Qumran, located on the northwest side of the Dead Sea, in the spring of 1947. During this time, the area was under the control of the British Mandate in Palestine, and the shepherds were apparently tending their flocks when one of them casually began to throw stones at what appeared to be the opening of a cave just west of the plateau at Qumran."
Abstract This paper explains that the Ankh is one of the most familiar and one of the most mysterious Egyptian artifacts and hieroglyphs. It discusses how the meaning of the Ankh is associated in various ways with "life" and regeneration.
From the Paper "The above interpretation is also related to the view of the Ankh as a sexual symbol. It must be remembered that sexuality was a very important part of the cosmological and mythical foundations of ancient religion. There are numerous interpretations which refer to sexual aspects of the Ankh symbol. For example, the Ankh has been identified by some as a penis sheath. (The ANKH)"
Abstract Many developments throughout history have had a great impact on human civilization. Some developments have had a positive effect and some have had negative effects. This essay discusses three developments or revolutions that have positively affected the history of humans: The agriculture revolution, scientific evolution and the evolution of writing. It explains how all have significantly affected human civilization and changed the way humans ate, thought, communicated and lived.
From the Paper "The Agriculture Revolution, which took place during the Neolithic Age, is a positive development throughout history because it allowed humans to settle down and live a sedentary life. Before agriculture, humans relied on hunting and gathering, or raising animals for their food. Both created a nomadic lifestyle because hunters migrated with the animals and herders would have to move with their animals when grazing was exhausted (Adler 9). The shift to sedentary life was slow but ultimately led to a larger population and human civilization. This change created villages and towns where people lived and worked. The villages and towns, in turn, created culture. These villages allowed specialization of other occupations because it was not necessary for every individual to farm. The textbook says, "Efforts were more productive for the entire community if people specialized" (Adler 9). This revolution also created the idea of privately owned property and systematized regulation. Farmers wanted "permanent possession" of their land and systematized regulation enforced these rights (Adler 9). Another positive effect from the Agriculture Revolution was the growth of public role for women. These dramatic changes in human life were very gradual. Even though it took 200 to 400 years to complete this development, the Agriculture Revolution forever changed human life."
This paper discusses the archaeological Chinese treasure Qin Shi Huang's mausoleum, especially the terracotta warriors, dating from the 221 B.C. and discovered in 1974.
Abstract This paper explains that the ancient Chinese believed that life in the nether regions after a person dies was similar to the present-day human world; therefore, emperor and supreme ruler of this world Qin Shi Huang commissioned the construction of a huge mausoleum, designed to look just like the Xianyang palace. The author points out that the tomb of the Emperor Qin has not been excavated; however, his buried terracotta army unearthed nearby has stunned the world and is being called the "eighth wonder of the world". The paper relates that the life-size images of his armed forces were made out of pottery and bronze and buried near him to guard his soul; of the more than 2,000 warriors already unearthed, no two look alike and their uniforms show different military ranks.
From the Paper "Was this the same as the "pottery men" found by others many years ago in another village? They report their discovery to a local official, and over the next several weeks, archaeologists reveal a huge underground vault or room or cave. It was bigger than a football field and inside was thousands of life-sized clay or terracotta stat ues of soldiers. The pit is the resting place of more than 6,000 full-size soldiers, all standing in formation, many with their horses ready for battle. Most of the warriors are over six feet tall; some are close to seven. The statues tower over modern-day Chinese. The detail is astonishing. Thirty years later, the work continues on uncovering and restoring this vast discovery."
Abstract Born at Akhetaton in 1343 BC, Tutankhamen was an Egyptian Pharoah of the 18th dynasty. The paper examines the state of Egypt at the time that Tutankhamen was born and ruled. It examines the important discovery of King Tut's tomb and shows how it influenced the fields of archaeology and history, the study of forensics and the culture of the modern world.
From the Paper "The primary significance of King Tutankhamen is the discovery of his tomb in the Valley of the Kings by English archaeologists Howard Carter and the Earl of Carnarvon in 1922. For years archaeologists had been routinely excavating and documenting the burials in the Valley of the Kings. But the tombs, while nonetheless containing valuable information, had been plundered by grave robbers throughout the centuries. The tomb of Tutankhamen was a spectacular find, having escaped the ravages of time and the plundering of grave robbers. Carter was the first to lay eyes on the riches of the burial chamber in more than two thousand years."
Tags: Thebes, Delta, Nile, Howard, Carter, Art, Deco
Abstract In 1939, at a private estate in southeastern Suffolk, the remains of a ship-burial that occurred sometime in the middle of the seventh century was uncovered. This paper looks at how the burial-ship had never been to sea, but reflected an old Scandinavian custom of setting the dead hero or king afloat, surrounded with treasures and how it became one the most famous and sophisticated excavations of the twentieth century.
From the Paper "From consideration of the effects found in the burial ship, it is obvious that the Anglo-Saxons had developed a sophisticated culture. The workmanship of the gold objects found is of very high degree, and other objects, such as a small harp, signify that music and poetry held a favored position in the court life of the times. In addition there are many items of solid gold and silver, gold and silver coins (which were useful in determining the date of the burial), and the other objects that imply a high level of material wealth. The presence of Christian objects (and the absence of a body) implies that the pagan customs were rapidly being superseded by Christian beliefs."
Abstract This paper takes a look at one of the greatest wars fought in the history of Greece, the Peloponnesian War. The paper explains that while both the opposing sides, the Athenians and the Spartans, controlled a great deal of land and sea power there were actually rather few direct confrontations and this lack of direct confrontations made the battle of Amphipolis all the more important as well as a turning point in the war. The paper explains the significance of this battle by looking at how the war had progressed up to the point of the battle of Amphipolis, by examining the military strength of the warring Athenian and Spartan factions and by explaining the history of the Amphipolis war and the circumstances that made it so devastating.
From the Paper "The first major explanation for the battle of Amphilpolis's importance as a turning point is the loss of military leaders during its battle. When Cleon, the commanding general of the Athenian land forces marshaled a massive army outside of Amphilpolis to reclaim the city, Brasida also amassed a large army of almost 2000 hoplites and 300 cavalry inside the walls of Amphipolis. When the battle appeared imminent however, Brasida confused Cleon by withdrawing from battle and refusing to fight on the fields outside of Amphipolis. Thinking that the army of Sparta would not come out to fight, Cleon began to withdraw his troops, only then did Brasida storm out of the walls and attack the hapless soldiers of Cleon. In this attack Cleon was killed by one of the commanders of the Spartan forces and in its escape more than 700 Athenians were killed by the onslaught. This resounding defeat was devastating in its numerical loss because the main force of the Athenian army was devastated, but even worse; the most competent general of the Athenian military staff was also killed."
Abstract This paper details the fascist regimes in Europe that used archeology as a means to justify and solidify the policies of political leaders and that the abuse of this science continues to this day. This paper centers on Germany's Nazi regime and their manipulation of past history in their rise to power. The research in this paper shows that the Nazis used archaeology not only to justify their claims of superiority but also for oppression and torture. The writer concludes that while archaeology explores the past it will always be subject to manipulation by political leaders who want to legitimize their nationalistic agendas.
From the Paper "The Nazis did not just use archaeology to justify their claims of superiority, they also used it to oppress and torture other people. They would go on to use pseudo-science to justify their morbid hatred for the Jews. "The Ahnenerbe had a special section known as the Institute for Scientific research for Military Purposes." (Epstein 31) This section carried out horrible experiments on live human prisoners from Dachau and other concentration camps. With these experiments, the Nazis invented anthropological evidence to suggest that it could be proven that Jews were an inferior race by measuring the size of their head. These beliefs combined with Hitler's call for Aryan pride roused a genocidal fury among Germans. For example, the administrator of the Ahnenerbe, Dr. Wolfram Sievers, became heavily involved in medical experiments on Jews who had been thrown in concentration camps. His tests were specifically meant to prove racial differences and the superiority of the Aryan race."
Abstract This essay surveys the literature for opinions on the purpose of the mysterious and appealing marble figures of the Bronze Age in the Aegean islands of the Cyclades. Since the sculptors left no writing, scholars are left to speculate based on evidence from nearby cultures. Arguments from many scholars are compared to try to find the best solutions to the problem. The paper includes photographs of the figures.
From the Paper "Van Schaik points to the fact that too few of the figures were found outside of burial contexts for the figures to be a assigned to a cult of the Mother Goddess like the one in Anatolia. However, as stated earlier, the similarity in form of the Cycladic figures to those of Anatolia cannot be discounted, whether or not one believes that they serve the same purpose".
