Abstract A discussion of the life and contribution of Edward Gibbon. The paper gives a brief background of the historian and then summarizes the major points raised in the book, including Christianity, the rise of the empire, the Ceasars and the reasons for the fall of the great empire.
From the Paper "The British historian, Edward Gibbon (1737-1794) is well-known for his monumental masterpiece, "The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire". His major accomplishment in this book was that he articulates the basic causations of the decline and fall of the Roman Empire in his famous book. Many people would argue that Gibbon?'s main point of the causation was the triumph of the barbarism and the church; but according to his writing, although he mentions those two factors a lot, the internal problems, which are the failure of the emperor and the domination of the Praetorian Guards, were the causation to the fall of the Empire. Gibbon has been given credits on his brilliant critiques on the history, and his modern way of writing history, but he has paid too much attention on the wars than the social factors, and he overemphasizes the influence of the historical figures whereas neglected the function of the mass. In addition to it, he condemns too much on the Christianity with out an impartial judgment, which draws him on the waves of the critiques. However, his criticism, his huge references, and his modern way of composing historiography outweigh his weakness in this work, and make him one of the greatest historians in human history."
Abstract This paper explains that during this period both deities and ordinary mortals were depicted, but there was no homogeneity of technique, which ranged from a very natural and sculptural pottery in amphorae to a more studied and artificial style. The author points out that three of the objects represent tools. The amphora stored wine, the lekythos was used during religious ceremonies, and the krater was used to serve punch made from wine. The paper relates that, unlike the amphora, the lekythos style has only one handle, a more slender neck than an amphora, with a wider mouth, and probably held oil or perfumes, a claim that is advanced because they were often found in and around tombs that were excavated from ancient homes.
Table of Content
Background
Pottery
?The Bateman Amphora ?
"The Dipylon Amphora"
"Douris Lekythos"
"Bell Krater"
Statues
"Athlete Making an Offering"
"Kouros"
From the Paper "A late example, this torso--which is all that is left?is actually less well modeled than the "Athlete". The belly and rib cage, in fact, appear to be stylized, almost abstract. It may be that the work has weathered. But probably, the more geometric, and less curvilinear, detailing on this statue was the result of a transition between the drapery and highly stylized posing of earlier eras, including the "dark times" and the early Archaic period, to the more abundantly natural depictions of the statuary of the Classical period. Kouri, which means ?youths,? was an art form that didn?t last very long, only about a hundred years. It is thought, nonetheless, that they represented gods, warriors and, of course, athletes."
Abstract A thriving and well-developed civilization appeared around the Chaco Canyon some time after 1 AD and went on to become one of the most representative in the area until its decline in the 14th century. This paper looks at how a well-planned network of roads encouraged trade with other local communities and those as far south as Mexico and the Toltec civilization, while the Anasazi locally manufactured pottery, jewelry, and magnificent buildings, which can still be admired today.
From the Paper "The archeological evidence discovered in the area proves that the Anasazi first moved into the area and into the southern Colorado Plateau some time at the beginning of the 1st millennium, that is, around 1 AD. The local population of the time became a "settled, agricultural people who have valued land and water above all else" . This gives us some clues about the later disappearance of the population.
The earliest Anasazi population occupied an area that had been previously abandoned by Archaic Indian populations. Settled in the area, the Anasazi civilization entered in the so-called Basketmaker phase, a simple, self-sufficient society. Later on, around the year 500 AD, the Anasazi began to introduce and develop their famous pottery, began using the bow and arrow, build pit dwellings and began to cultivate a larger variety of crops, more nutritious, including beans among others."
Abstract This paper explores the history, social organization, and customs of two California tribes: The Mohave and the Chemehuevi. The scope of the paper includes a review of the current status of the two tribes.
From the Paper "The American Indian tribes are the original immigrants of the continent of America. In fact, the people of these tribes are of old Eastern origin, believed to be descendants of the Mongloid race in Asia. Over a period of thousands of years, these tribes gradually populated the unoccupied Western Hemisphere, from the Bering Strait to the southern most tip of South America, and from coast to coast. These first settlers were not savages and, in fact, possessed ancient knowledge about the laws of the universe and nature. They developed varying types of social organization and mechanisms, which satisfied their choice of environment and preferred manner of living, in harmony with nature (Dutton 1983: xix-xx). It is the objective of this paper to discuss the history, customs, and social organization, both past and present, of two of the American Indian tribes that settled in the West, namely, the Mohave and the Chemehuevi."
Abstract This paper compares the history and development of the Mediterranean civilization to that of the history and development of the civilization of the Near East. The paper compares the political, economic, and social realms, cultural and intellectual ideas, and values and institutions of both civilizations and looks at how each differed in its impact on the creation of Western civilization, as well as the degree of that impact.
From the Paper "Civilization in the ancient Mediterranean (1000 B.C.E. - 500 C.E.) arose out of a number of important causes. First, the location of the Mediterranean area between three continents, and the influence of civilizations like Mesopotamia, India and China nearby. Further, the excellent communication by sea, the mild climate, and the invention of writing were important factors in encouraging the development of civilization in the area (Poiycratis)."
Tags: ancient, mesopotamia, india, china, egyptians, hebrews, iran, afghanistan, sumerians
Abstract This paper looks at the habits and characteristics of the ichthyosaur, which is a family of marine reptiles that existed during the same era as the dinosaurs. The paper looks at the lifestyle of the species and focuses on various extinction theories.
Introduction
Well-Adapted to Ocean Life
Diet
Reproduction
Locomotion
Deep Divers
Conclusion
From the Paper "Ichthyosaur fossils were discovered in the late nineteenth century, before the first dinosaur fossils were discovered, and received little acclaim. It wasn"t until the recent discovery a few years ago of a small amount of new specimens in Japan and China that a wider interest in ichthyosaurs" was revived. The ichthyosaur is a fish-shaped tetrapod of the diapsid family. Tetrapod means four-limbed vertebrate. Diapsids are classified as having two openings in the skull and is a classification that encompasses reptiles and birds. There is much fossil evidence to support the conclusion that ichthyosaurs were descended from terrestrial, or land-dwelling, reptiles. One such example is that Ichthyosaurs were air-breathers like cetaceans."
Abstract This paper examines early Irish art and literature in an effort to gain insight into early Irish heritage and culture. The paper discusses Le Tene art, Celtic art, the emergence of craft centers or workshops, influences on Le Tene art and Le Tene art's influence on other cultures as well as early Christian artifacts, the importance and significance of the Ulster cycle in Irish literature, and how the story "The Tain Bo Cuailgne" represents the rough, common life of the early Irish.
From the Paper "When attempting to explore early Irish cultures, we can discover much when we observe art and literature in conjunction with historical information. Historical facts only present a portion of the picture, while artifacts and literature fill in the gaps. Art from the Le Tene culture offers incredible insight into early Irish heritage because literacy was not widespread. Symbols and images depicted on pieces discovered at this time represent rituals and beliefs. While most of the population could not write, the literature from the Ulster era helps support what we can learn from artifacts. In addition, when we combine what we see and read from the arts of early Irish cultures, we discover a remarkable connection to historical accounts of these people."
Abstract This paper examines the relationship between Nok art and the long lost culture. It explains that the tragedy of looting and the loss of cultural/archaeological context for surviving artifacts has made a true exploration of the Nok history extremely difficult and speculative. It concludes that what can be known for certain is that, prior to 500 B.C.E, at a time when Africa was once thought to be completely plagued by intellectual darkness, there existed a civilization with the ability to create advanced and symbolic relics of a civilization where hierarchy, art, and science prevailed.
From the Paper "The second vein of interpretation is based on surrounding tribes. For example, Gillan takes this tactic when he writes: "A number of heads and bodies, depicting deformities or ailments (similar to diseases portrayed in Ibibio masks), may well have been used for magico-medical purposes" (66) Taking this approach, there seem to be indications that the statues were used for a variety of religious purposes. Surrounding tribes in Benin have frequently used lifelike statues, not unlike the terra cottas found in Nok, as part of ancestral altars through which they either invoked the spirits of their ancestors or prayed for them. Statues may also have been used as representations of the divine. There are other options as well. They could have been used ?with funeral ceremonies, ancestor cults or other religious rituals. They might have been conceived as representations of chiefs--though not as their portraits--or as mythical beings and spirits... Others may have served as grave figures ...charms and fertility amulets, possibly worn as pendents. (Gillan, 66) Most surrounding cultures have been polytheistic/animistic and either worship or placate a wide range of deities. "Janus figures" found in Nok may have been used like those in surrounding cultures, to ?express the male/female duality of human nature.? (Gillan, 66) Additionally, even today ceramic figures are used as finials on many roofs and shrines, and Gillan speculates that terra cotta figures might have taken this place centuries before."
Abstract This paper provides a brief overview of the ongoing struggle between Greece and Turkey. The paper describes the history of their relations, the wars fought between the two countries, massacres of populations and occupations of land, British involvement in the struggle, present day relations, as well as the current political situation in Cyprus.
From the Paper "Despite many commonalitities, Greece and Turkey have been at odds for hundreds of years (Turkey pp). Although many subscribe to the myth of ancient hatred, there is however, a history of conflict that dates back to the entry of Turkish nomads into the Byzantine Empire in the 11th century, the eventual collapse of the Byzantine, the fall of Constantinople in 1453, and the long dominance of the Ottoman Dynasty over Greece and the Eastern Mediterranean islands (Turkey pp). Throughout history, the strategic location of the small Mediterranean island of Cyprus has been of interest of several states that sought to gain a foothold for Middle East invasions (Meier Pp). Greece gained control of the island in the 13th century B.C. and dominated the island until the Ottoman takeover of 1571, after which Turkish immigrants began to inhabit the island (Meier Pp). During the fall of the Ottoman Empire in the wake of its war with Russia, the United Kingdom negotiated to become the protecting power over Cyprus and officially gained sovereignty over the island in 1923 under the Treaty of Lausanne, making the island a British Crown Colony until its independence in 1960 (Meier Pp). Since Greece won its independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1832, relations between Greece and Turkey have been marked by mutual hostility resulting in four wars, The Greco-Turkish War of 1897, the Balkan Wars of 1912-1913, the First World War 1914-1918, and the Greco-Turkish War 1919-1922 (Ottoman pp)."
Abstract This paper looks at specific fossil and archaeological evidence and specimens as possible sources for ancient Greek myths. It explores specific fossil bed sites and their relationship to the ancient world, as well as possible theories of how the ancients must have come across and created legends for various species of pre-historic creatures. The paper includes photographs.
From the Paper "The ancient scholar Pausanias described some of these bones as "enormous but apparently human" when he visited the sanctuary of Askiepios, a rich fossil bed. Many fossils were claimed by the ancients to be the bones of local heroes, since many of these heroes were said to be of extraordinary height and stature. When these bones were found, they would be reburied in a ceremonial fashion and placed inside large coffins. These sites were then lost to the local's knowledge; so later in time Greeks would dig up large coffins with bones in them and then reclaim to have found the buried remains of local heroes."
An historical look at the series of wars waged by Western European Christians to recapture the Holy Land from the Muslims from the end of the 11th century to the late 13th century.
Abstract This paper discusses the background, causes, and consequences of the crusades. In particular, the paper examines the First Crusade in detail and then takes a brief look at the other crusades.
Outline
Background
The Immediate Cause
Pope Urban's Clermont Address of 1095
The First Crusade
The Second Wave
The Aftermath and Other Crusades
Consequences
From the Paper "Following the death of Charlemagne, King of the Franks and Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, in 814 A.D., the Empire fell into a steady decline. Christian Europe came under repeated attacks, from the Magyars in the east and center and from the marauding Vikings in the north. Islam, which was a growing power since the 7th century, posed an even bigger threat to Europe. Its forces had had conquered North Africa, the eastern shores of the Mediterranean and Spain by the 8th century. The Byzantine Empire, which had survived the fall of the Western Roman Empire, to carry the torch of the ancient Greco-Roman civilization and Christianity in the east, was also threatened by the forces of Islam. In the 11th century A.D., however, Europe began to experience a revival in its strength. A growing population matched a robust economy. The power and influence of the Church was consolidated following a reform movement which reversed the previous practice of kings? appointment of important clergy members."
Abstract This paper presents a positive review of an article about the most recent discoveries made at the Qumran Cemetery and the Essene community that lived there in ancient times. The paper also describes the approach that the author of the article took to shed new light on the findings at the cave and the implications these findings had for the long-held assumption that the inhabitants of the cave were members of an all-male, celibate society.
From the Paper "Therefore, the author's approach was to try to resolve some of the outstanding issues and concerns about the actual cemetery as opposed to the related discoveries of the scrolls. The intention was to present insights into the celibacy of the Essene settlement based on assertions made from the archaeological discoveries of the Qumran Cemetery. The reason there was renewed interest in the Qumran Cemetery project which was discovered in the 1950's was that some new controversy was raised based on women and children being found buried in the cemetery that was thought to be an all male celibate society. Scholars had theorized that Qumran cemetery was a part of the Essene settlement near by and they have been credited by other historians as the keepers of the Dead Sea Scrolls which not by coincidence were found near the Essene community cemetery."
Abstract The author addresses the arguments within the historical sciences, which include environmental archaeology, over the type of data, qualitative or quantitative, that is most appropriate for advancing knowledge in the field. In light of these controversies, the author suggests an approach that includes a revision of traditional qualitative approaches through the application of Eisler's cultural theories.
From the Paper "Riane Eisler's The Chalice and the Blade, published in 1988, presents a new theory of human cultural evolution, as well as a new vision of reconstructed history. Eisler draws from archaeological discoveries made in the latter half of the 20th century, as well as from mythology and contemporary feminist re-interpretations of earlier archaeological discoveries and mythology. She develops an idea of cultural evolution based on the "chaos theory", which provides the rubric for her understanding of systems change. She calls her idea "Cultural Transformation Theory". It is based in basic biological principles and presents ideas about the ways in which humans have interacted with their environment over time. Her study is an interesting one for environmental archaeology as a science because it challenges the prevailing cultural theories in the field."
Abstract This paper examines how remote sensing can be broken down to New World and Old World. It looks at how New World involves aerial photography from artificial satellites and how Old World involves procedures like electromagnetic and resistivity surveying.
From the Paper "The world emits energy in the form of electromagnetic waves. There are many sources of energy and the most important one is the sun. Satellites mostly portray the land with respect to the electromagnetic spectrum. There can be two types of sensing active and passive sensing. Active sensing involves the satellite to send waveforms that interact with certain parts of the land (including water) and give off different waveforms in the spectrum. The passive sensing involves just reading the waveforms from different sources (like the sun) and portraying them. One advantage of active sensing as opposed to passive is that measurements can be recorded anytime where in passive it has to be done when the naturally occurring energy is available."
Abstract This paper examines several of the many treasuries found at the sites of Olympia and Delphi. The deeper meaning of these structures is explored, including the motives behind their construction.
From the Paper "During the eighth century B.C., conditions in Greece contributed to a sense of Panhellenism among the various poleis. There was a general increase in cultural unity, a phenomenon which corresponds to more intense contact with the Eastern world. Such contact would have made obvious the differences between Greek and non-Hellenic cultures. At this time, there was a rise in religious sanctuaries and festivals which, rather than being local, included all Greeks. Two of the most famous Panhellenic sanctuaries were of Zeus at Olympia and Apollo at Delphi. Festivals which were sometimes held at these sites served to enhance the individual poleis by competing against each other in various contests."
