Abstract This paper discusses how the war waged against Iraq by U.S. forces has resulted in the destruction of more than just military sites. It explains how many of Iraq's cultural sites, including museums, libraries, and significant ancient sites, have been the victims of destruction.
From the Paper "An early tourist guide on Iraq, which was printed in 1982 states ?Few countries in the world are as rich in archaeology as Iraq. The Iraq National Museum, with its great, well-organized and carefully labeled collection of archaeological finds is a reflection of this richness (Radio Free Europe, 2003). Today, the museum remains under guard by U.S. military forces to prevent any more looting and pillaging of ancient artifacts. Many statues, paintings and papers have been totally ruined and several of the most precious artifacts are missing."
Abstract This paper examines how both the Portus Augusti and Sebastos had utilized the technique of using ?pozzolana", concrete which hardens under water. Sebastos was destroyed in 130 during a violent earthquake; Ostia fell to invaders in late antiquity. It discusses that, although both harbors had the same general shape, Sebastos was a much better built port. The use of "pozzolana" enabled Herod to build huge warehouses on top of the mole, while Claudius's moles only served as moles. Sebastos offered refuge from harsh conditions in the ocean; the Portus Augusti did not always succeed in doing so.
From the Paper "Although harbor archaeology has not attracted the majority of tourists as an ancient site, it still tells fascinating stories about the Romans? ingenuity in engineering. The port at Ostia, the Portus Augusti, and Sebastos, the harbor at Caesarea Maritima, stand as proof. The engineers overcame several challenges to building these ports by using a unique construction technique ? the use of ?pozzolana,? a concrete that can harden under water."
Abstract This paper examines how since the Classical period Greek cities had spread unevenly along the coast of Asia Minor, drawn by opportunities for trade, excellent harbours and the region's natural wealth. It looks at how the cities provided the administrative framework for Roman rule and how Roman technology and culture, itself influenced by Greek thought, influenced the Hellenistic culture which responded by adapting the new influences to traditional patterns. It explores how the cities adapted their competitive strategies to include the imperial presence and how the imperial authorities responded by attempting to control competition.
From the Paper "The widespread growth of the Corinthian order seen in imperial architecture and the rapid replacement of Doric stoas by Ionic or Corinthian colonnades may also be due to regional developments, rather than direct Roman influence. It was already established in several Anatolian cities and it seems to have been favoured by Hellenistic kings (Waelkens 1989, 79-80). Its success may be due to several factors. There was a local general taste for richer architecture, itself a reflection of the provinces? increasing wealth (Waelkens 1989, 80). The architectural embellishment and increasing formalisation of public spaces suggests that they were a showcase of civic pride and a reflection of the competitive environment of Asia Minor (Waelkens 1989, 81)."
Abstract This paper presents an overview of the Egyptian King/Pharaoh called Akhenaten. The paper begins with a brief explanation of his major achievements, since he was known as a revolutionary king. The writer also mentions that his physical appearance was somewhat different and that perhaps led to his unique personality.
Contents
Introduction
Thesis/Structure of Sources
Analysis of Materials/Arguments
Synopsis of Theories
Additional Themes
From the Paper "Akhenaten is often not credited as being one of the great pharaoh?s, his name is not as well known as that of the boy king, Tutankhamen. However, he should be credited with being a revolutionary. The former pharaoh is most well noted as being a religious zealot and instigator of change, if only temporary change, within the country of Egypt. Many historians have noted or credited Akhenaten with single handedly being responsible for initiating a religious revolution in Egypt. Though his efforts have been defined as the first true attempt at establishing a monotheistic state in a polytheistic society, his efforts were not permanent. The reasoning behind his decisions to change Egypt's religion is still questioned however to this day. The most notable theme and historical resources suggest that Akhenaten was a self absorbed individual who revolutionized religion in Egypt during his reign to benefit his own idealisms and truisms."
Abstract This paper discusses how the area of Shandong holds China's most remarkable archaeological discoveries and, in particular, focuses on the burial assemblages of the Dawenkou site in Shandong Northern China. It revolves around the main idea that these burial sites present convincing evidence of an emerging social complexity. A second focus attempts to provide proof that the Dawenkou culture played a major role in the emerging complexity of the Neolithic Chinese period.
From the Paper "There has been a plethora of evidence accumulated by modern day archaeologists and anthropologists suggesting that the people of the Neolithic era began displaying a completely unique societal complexity as early as 5000 B.C. ?We may assume that since the Neolithic cultures and their remains are distributed over such an expansive region, distinct regional or local differences and different cultural characters are bound to exist, and that at the same time they are most likely to contain many elements of influence that came from primitive cultures in the heartland of the Northeast and the coastal region of the Southeast; they thus reflect the historical lineage of the region and its characteristic of being a place where many different ethnic groups had gathered and settled.? (Guldin) "
Abstract This paper begins by describing the Achilles tendon as the tough tissue that connects the calf muscles, also known as gastroenemius and the soleneus, to the heel bone, also known as calcaneus. The writer explains how this area came to be called by its name. The paper then shows how damage is sometimes caused to this tendon, and what treatments are used.
From the Paper "Tendonitis and tendon rupture are characterized by swelling, tenderness and bruising. Sometimes, the tendon separates from the bone and that is not observed from X-rays. X-rays do help make a diagnosis if the rupture causes a part of the calcaneal bone to come away with the tendon. Complete rupture is characterized by a loud crack followed by inability to walk properly or rise on tiptoes. One of better known tests for complete rupture is the Thompson's test. In this test, the patient is asked to lie on his stomach on a flat surface with the feet unsupported (hanging off the table). When the calf is squeezed and the foot moves, it means that a complete rupture is unlikely. In some cases, a confirmatory test is necessary."
Abstract This paper traces the history of the Jewish people from the age of the patriarchs to when Abraham and his descendants were selected as the chosen people and to the nomadic period after the Jewish exodus from Egypt. The paper goes on to discuss the time that the Jewish people came to and lived in Israel after the exodus from Egypt, the time of King Solomon, the exile of the Jewish people from Israel, and the life of the Jewish people under Persian, Greek, and Roman rule. The paper concludes the historical account at the period just after the Romans crucified Jesus.
From the Paper "The Hebrews do not actually appear in history until about 1224-1211 B.C.E. during the reign of Marniptah, king of Egypt (Ancient pg). Marniptah was the son of Raamses I, 1290-1223 B.CE, who is thought to be the kind of Egypt at the time of the Hebrew exodus (Ancient pg). In an account of Marniptah's military campaign in Asia, 1220 B.C.E., inscribed in granite is listed all the conquered peoples including the Israelites, who are mentioned as "now living in Canaan" (Ancient pg). Before this, the only history is that which was written by the Hebrews themselves who trace their origins to a "single individual, Abraham, who comes originally from Mesopotamia" (Ancient pg). This pre-Egyptian Hebrew history is referred to as the age of the patriarchs, which means father-ruler (Ancient pg). More than a thousand years had passed before this era of history was written down, and although it is impossible to date, most scholars place it somewhere between 1950-1500 B.C.E. (Ancient pg)."
Abstract This dissertation discusses the culinary and food habits of the ancient Romans, with special emphasis on the history of wine, olives and olive oil, and bread and baking. The paper also examines typical recipes that provided for the early Roman cuisine. It includes numerous photographs, illustrations, and archaeological findings.
From the Paper "As the flour milling techniques became more refined, the Romans began to produce top quality bread by singly finely milled wheat flour. This flour was called siligo. The bread that came from it was called Panis Siligineus. The first word means bread in Latin; the second denotes the type of grain from which the bread was made. There was another type of bread that could be considered an Egyptian import. This was called Alexandrian bread due to the crust that was created in Alexandria from local wheat. (Dl.ket.org, 2001)"
Abstract This paper provides a thorough history of the Jewish people. Within this historical perspective, the paper emphasizes the form of self-government Jews practiced through the ages, the role religion played in their lives, and the persecution they suffered under different rulers. The paper covers Jewish history from the 7th century until the present day.
From the Paper "For centuries, the Jews were not only a scattered and much-subjugated people, but also a much-despised and persecuted race. Hatred of the Jews, or anti-Semitism, dates back to their expulsion and dispersion from Palestine in the 7th century, down to contemporary times, because they were a sullen, unsociable and haughty people (Lazare 1998). Unlike other conquered races, which submitted to the conqueror's laws and separated these laws from their religious beliefs, in adapting themselves to circumstances, the Jews did not and could not accept the laws of other nations, even their own conquerors. Neither was it conceivable to them to submit to conquerors."
Abstract This paper discusses the ancient and modern attitudes towards what is considered a city and then creates a 'model' based upon this discussion. It explores and compares the following features, in Greek, Roman and Hellenistic worlds: The concept of a relatively large, nucleated settlement, independence, autonomy and self-government, complex public space and buildings and identity. It also looks at the concepts of protective Gods and founding hero figures.
From the Paper "As established Pausanias earlier rejection of the "upstart" town, he advocated that he did not base any rejection on grounds of its small size. Aristotle concurs with this view of smallness, believing it to be a necessary condition - A great city is not to be confounded with a populous one. Babylon, to Aristotle, was a negation of a true city, a symbol of elephantiasis . Comparative demography of the modern Mediterranean has been used in league with average tribute assessments to ascertain the population of a region . Both cannot give us an absolute number of citizens for neither voting numbers take into account children, women and slaves nor can we be sure that they represent a typical turn out."
Abstract This paper reviews gender, class, money, military purpose, citizenship, behaviour - including hubris and sycophancy and patronage, as different facets determining social class in Ancient Greece and Rome. The range of subjects discussed span over the Greek, Hellenistic and Roman periods, including different examples from many different cities.
From the Paper "Throughout this essay, it is pertinent to realise that the idea of public and private spheres is an 18th Century premise with no basis in the Ancient world where privacy and community overlapped and were not separate "worlds", rather, there were degrees of closeness. In establishing those inside and outside of the social hierarchy this overlap causes considerable confusion in evaluating factors for status. It would be remise to view women as lack any social status because of lack of political rights; women still played a very important role within society."
The Egyptian Society declined rapidly from the end of the Eighteenth Dynasty. The relationship between this decline and economic conditions, the position of weakened pharaohs and warfare is examined.
Abstract This paper examines the causes of the decline of the ancient Egyptian civilization and argues that a number of factors played a role. Among these are a shift from economic prosperity to poverty, the weakening power of the pharaoh (related to the rise of the priesthood and royal instability) and continuous warfare with neighbouring societies.
From the Paper "From the Egyptian state's origins in the Old Kingdom, circa 2575 B.C., it flourished in relative isolation from other civilizations. It was protected by the Mediterranean in the north, the desert in the east and west, and by an "ethnic frontier" in the south (Adams, 1984, p. 38). During this time of remoteness, the Egyptian state built complex pyramid structures, developed a unique religion and established a political system based on the supremacy of the pharaoh and a hereditary bureaucracy (Fagan, 2004, p. 385). However, the prosperity and stability of the Old Kingdom (circa 2575 to 2180 B.C.) could not last forever, and since several succeeding pharaohs lacked leadership Egypt entered a period in which the central power of the government declined and local leaders became independent rulers within their own territories (Fagan, 2004, p. 389). In conjunction with this decline in power, came a prolonged drought cycle, but this led to improvements in agriculture and eventually to a rapid increase in population, though famines continued to strike for over three hundred years. Trade networks were vastly expanded during the Middle Kingdom (2134 to 1640 B.C.) and parts of the desert lands of Nubia were conquered, the first signs of imperial ambitions (Fagan, 2004, p. 390). The second intermediate period, occurring between 1640 and 1530 B.C., brought political instability and economic disorder to Egypt once again. However, in the same way that the first intermediate period brought improvements to the Egyptian civilization, this new period of instability brought several innovations that preserved Egypt's role in the eastern Mediterranean world (Fagan, 2004, p. 391). The New Kingdom, 1530 to 1070 B.C., brought with it periods of extensive wealth, an expansive empire, and political stability, though these qualities were quickly dissolved with the last of the long-lived pharaohs Rameses III (Fagan, 2004, p. 391; Ibid, p. 395). The last years of the Egyptian dynasties were marked by a "succession of short-lived, sometimes competing and generally unremarkable kings"(Rice, 1997, p. 1980). After this time political weakness opened the door to the rapidly evolving civilizations crowding Egypt's borders. By about 1000 B.C. the country was bankrupt and the influence of other ancient civilizations, Assyrians and Persians followed by the Greeks, came to dominate the Nile Valley (Clayton, 1994, p. 173). The decline of the Egyptian civilization resulted from the complex interplay of several factors including economic conditions, a weakening of the pharaohs? power, and warfare with other complex societies."
Abstract This paper looks at the relatively recent discovery of cave art and how many experts were, at first, skeptical of its authenticity. The paper describes some of the art found and how it was accidentally discovered, as well as how it finally came to be recognized as authentic Paleolithic art.
From the Paper "Despite being the most ancient of all human artistic forms, cave art was discovered only within the last one hundred years or so, usually by accident and by amateurs. In 1879, near Santander in northern Spain, Marcelino de Sautuola was exploring with his little daughter the Altamira caves on his estate. Since the ceiling of the debris-filled cavern "was only a few inches above Marcelino's head, it was his daughter who was first able to discern the shadowy forms of painted beasts on the cave roof" (Berenquer, 25). De Sautuola was the first modern man to explore this cave and he was certain that the paintings dated back to prehistoric times. Archeologists, however, were highly dubious of their authenticity, but in 1880 the Altamira paintings were officially dismissed as forgeries. In 1896, at Pair-non-Pair in the Gironde district of France, more paintings were discovered that were partially covered by calcareous deposits that would have taken thousands of years to accumulate and soon after, these paintings were recognized as authentic by the experts. The caves at Lascaux near Montignac in France were discovered accidentally in 1941 by two young boys who were playing in a field. Their dog chased a ball down a hole and disappeared, and the boys then followed the dog down into the caves."
Abstract Although the ideas behind evolution were discussed much earlier, Charles Darwin was the first to present a coherent scientific theory of the process. Since then, due in large part to genetic science, Darwin's theory has been revised. However, theories are constantly subject to testing, modification, and refutation as new evidence and ideas emerge. This paper discusses how scientists are debating the evolution of the domestic dog, since new propositions are being suggested. The paper shows that the true derivation of this animal, which has so greatly impacted the lives of humans, remains to be seen.
From the Paper "The debate on the evolution of dogs is going to continue until enough evidence arises that gives most credence to a particular theory. In the meantime, scientists will continue to collect information and data. For example, Israeli archaeologists recently found a woman who was buried 12,000 years ago with what many believe is a puppy in her hands. Nearby, archaeologists found a man from the same era buried with two small canids, also presumably dogs. Coppinger is not swayed by this latter find because the bones are too wolflike. Yet Tamar Dayan, an archaeologist at Tel Aviv University, points out that the specimens have some key dog characteristics, such as crowded teeth and shorter jaws (Pennisi, 1540)."
Abstract This paper briefly traces the history of ancient China. The paper talks about the key elements of the Shang Dynasty, the Chou Dynasty, the Zhou Dynasty, the Han Dynasty, and the T'ang Dynasty. Also discussed is the historical significance placed on the family, the architectural and artistic developments, military conquests, and the Golden Age under the T'ang Dynasty.
From the Paper "The Chinese, under the Chou dynasty, were known for its use of jade, bronze, horse-drawn chariots, ancestor worship, highly organized armies, and human sacrifice. Cities were organized and built enclosed by protective walls rather than allowing the people to continue to exist as loosly knit tribes. Archeological records have found one city surrounded by a wall 30 feet high, 65 feet thick, and 4 1/2 miles long. The greatness of the architectural achievements was a drastic change for a mostly agrarian society. The feudal lifestyle of 1000 BCE china were typified by military squabbles over natural resources and land. By organizing large portions of Chinese citizens inside the walls of a city, the life in daily life in china changed significantly, and changed for the first time in many centuries. Inside the walled cities lived the rulers, priests, and warriors. Similar to the medieval societal structure which evolved in Europe almost 2000 years later, merchants and craftsmen lived in houses built up against the outside walls of the cities. Farmers lived near their fields in nearby villages which afforded them the protection of the city. During the Zhou dynasty, chopsticks were invented, which changed the way people ate their food."
