A discussion of new isotopic evidence along with other new data which is leading the way in painting a new picture of the Neanderthal man and his subsistence patterns.
Abstract This paper presents detailed descriptions of previous evidence and theory for neanderthal subsistence pattern of a scavenger plus an attempt to topple that theory in light of the new evidence at hand. This new evidence includes isotopic data that suggest a meat only diet and other studies that suggest wide spread active hunting through wear patterns on tools. These point to a subsistence pattern of a top level predator not that of a lowly scavenger.
From the Paper "Of any ancient fossil hominid it's a hands down, no contest winner for the prize of best known and understood1. Say "Neanderthal", and archaeologist and laymen alike would not have to work hard to conjure up the classical short stocky body frame, the indicative brow ridge and the protruding facial features of the Neanderthal people. But it is not all that simple, while we may have a plethora of faunal and lithic remains including those of the skeleton, the pictures of life style, diet, culture, and land use for example that these paint are not as complete as one might think. Often times the pictures one can paint from these remains are very cloudy take Neanderthal subsistence patterns and diet for instance. Neanderthal subsistence has been under heated controversy from its infancy. The two camps have their talons well immersed in the flesh of the faunal and lithic fossil records. The prevailing theory has been that Neanderthal subsistence and acquisition of foodstuffs as primarily a scavenging life style. However, in light of recent discoveries and new isotopic analysis a review of the lithic and faunal evidence is necessary and many are revising their previous theories. The picture is dramatically changing, isotopic data along with Neanderthal contemporaries at the KRM site in Africa are providing archaeologists with a picture of an organized people who were at the top of their environments trophic pyramid. Recent research on hominid strategies for meat procurement has focused on the interpretations of bones recovered from archaeological sites. Binford's 1984 analysis of faunal collections from Middle Stone Age deposits of the Klasies River Mouth Cave in South Africa identified carnivore activity and hominid scavenging of carnivore kills as major sources of the large mammal remains at the early Late Pleistocene site. From the skeletal parts represented and patterns of cut-marks on the bones, Binford concluded, "in short, there is nothing in the data from Klasies River Mouth to suggest technologically-aided hunting, or even tactical hunting, as such" (1984). Although this interpretation of the Klasies River Mouth fauna is disputed by Klein (1986), Binford's conclusion has been extended to the whole of hominid subsistence prior to the Middle-Upper Paleolithic transition of the Late Pleistocene (Binford 1984). For the sake of argument and our purpose of substantiating Neanderthals as top-level hunters, Binford's extension will serve to illustrate the faunal evidence for scavenging vs. hunting."
Abstract The site of Ur, an ancient city in Mesopotamia, is an archaeological site rich in findings of the Sumerian culture and history. This paper explains how the city of Ur was discovered in the mid seventeenth century and details some of the fascinating findings of the place such as the Royal Cemetery and a detailed burial chamber.
From the Paper "At the end of the pit, the team found the king's tomb chamber. A second stone chamber was built up against it, with the tomb of the queen, who owned the chariot and other offerings found in the upper pit. Her name, Shub-ad, was inscribed on a cylinder seal. Her body was still in the tomb. The upper part of her body was completely hidden by a mass of beads of gold, silver, lapis lazuli, carnelian, agate, and chalcedony. Her headdress was a more elaborate version of the ones found on the remains of the court ladies.
"This discovery showed that the graves of the king and queen had been exactly alike but that the queen's chamber had sunk below the ground level of her grave pit. According to Woolley, they were probably husband and wife, and the king had died first. The queen, wanting to lie as close to him as possible, had been buried next to him."
Abstract There are many techniques for dating within the field of archaeology, one of these methods is the The K-Ar (Potassium-Argon) method which has been a vast success within the field of geology. This paper examines how it works and what methods are used to glean the date from archaeological artifacts and remains.
From the Paper "It is possible to date rocks with a low potassium content such as basalts in this way. Sadly the dates are not always secure due to the behaviour of the geochemicals of the parent and daughter elements as they are likely to being disturbed by geological events such as weathering or reheating that normally take place during the formation of a rock. Potassium argon dating allows scientists to date volcanic rocks between two billion and 100,000 years old."
Abstract An examination of these figurines which have become symbolic representation of art form of the Paleolithic period. The paper shows that these figurines are also the portrayal of mother goddesses and a symbol of sexuality. The main conclusion archaeologists came to was that they represent the animistic or shaministic symbol of fertility and fecundity. It also has the function of depicting the ideology of the female form and their influence on the society.
From the Paper "When the ice age figurines were first discovered, archaeologists speculated its existence something that represent the transition period between the Neanderthals of the Middle Paleolithic and the Homo sapiens of the Upper Paleolithic period. The differences are quite marked in the expression of the figurines. For instance the first time in human archaeology the image of the sculpture are used as a means of communication."
Tags: Paleolithic, Neanderthals, archaeology, female, fertility, imagery, ice, age
An examination of "The Cult of the Dead in Judah: Interpreting the Material Remains" by Elizabeth M. Bloch-Smith which claims that an ancient cult of the dead existed during biblical times.
Abstract "The Cult of the Dead in Judah: Interpreting the Material Remains" by Elizabeth M. Bloch-Smith is a discussion of the author's evidence of the aforementioned cult through biblical and archaeological records. The paper discusses Bloch-Smith's premise that the biblical and archaeology records corroborate each other and therefore provide proof of a cult of the dead. This report reviews the findings of Bloch-Smith's article, conclusions of the article, a critique of the findings and a response to the article's findings.
From the Paper "The author begins by looking at archeological burial sites to support the cult of the dead. She looks primarily at Judahite burial types in the Iron Age. Bloch-Smith attempts to show that the Judah cult had a distinctive burial practice separate from surrounding cultures. The primary Judah burial types were bench tomb and cave. In a bench tomb configuration, benches lined the walls of the tomb. The bodies were laid on the waist-high benches. A repository was also part of the tomb to accommodate new bodies. The cave configuration required the body to be placed in the center of the cave along with artifacts associated with the individual. If additional bodies were placed in the cave, then the bodies would be repositioned along the cave walls. Regardless of the configuration, similar artifacts are found in both. These artifacts included food, ceramic containers, jewelry, tools, personal items and more. The format used to bury the Judahite people appears to remain unchanged throughout the Iron Age."
From the Paper "A Cladogenetic View of the Early Evolutionary History of Horses
Abstract
Drawing upon the theoretical and empirical literature, this report describes evidence obtained from the fossil record supporting the anagenetic view of the horse phylogeny and its early evolutionary development. The anagenetic perspective advances the notion that a gradual microevolutionary process has occurred within a species. This view is also associated with a phyletic transformation from ancestral to descendant species. The fossil record for horses presents, in general, a progressive replacement of one genus with another without a strong indication of temporary overlapping. However, the literature also suggests that anagenetic development was dominant within the Eocene and Oligocene, while genetic diversity (branching) suggesting a.."
From the Paper "This research will examine archaeological finds that have been made at Masada in Israel. The research will set forth the historical background and context for archaeological research at Masada and then discuss how modern research has contributed to the understanding of history of ancient eastern Mediterranean culture.
In Western culture, the basis for understanding the events that gave Masada a high historical profile was for centuries the work of Josephus, a first-century Jew who wrote an account of the three-year siege by Roman legions of a Jewish fortress community originally built by Herod the Great, the last Hasmonean king (Small, 1990). The siege followed the destruction of the Jewish temple in Jerusalem in AD 70, the culmination of the so-called First Jewish Revolt, which had begun in AD 66 at the instigation of .."
From the Paper "Widespread extinctions began on the continent of Australia during the late Pleistocene. Many of the animals that disappeared were medium- to large-sized herbivores. Their demise may have resulted from early Homo sapien hunting activities. Apart from Antarctica, no other continent has fewer native terrestrial megafauna than Australia (Martin 376-397). During the late Pleistocene, only one genus and four species of terrestrial mammals over 44 kilograms survived. Most of those that became extinct were rather distinctive creatures (Scarre 44). The marsupial genera that disappeared, for example, had various oral specializations. These included the following: (1) Zaglossus (long spiny tongue); (2) Thylacoleo (large gape and short heavy jaws; (3) Phascolonus (strong mobile lips); (4)..."
An archeological analysis of the cross-cultural influences of peoples crossing between Siberia and Alaska over land or sea. Discusses evidence, theories and examples.
2,025 words (approx. 8.1 pages), 10 sources, 1997, $ 71.95
From the Paper "The earliest human beings to enter the American continent crossed the Bering land bridge between Siberia and Alaska at various times between 11,000 and 40,000 years ago. They were stone-age hunters who followed herds of large animals across the bridge and, eventually, down into North and South America. Because, after 11,000 BP (years before the present), the level of the Bering Sea rose and cut off this means of access, the American continents have sometimes been called "a laboratory for modern man" (Farb 3). The people who moved into these new territories brought their culture with them. But, their material culture was extremely limited, as with most migratory stone-age peoples, and any material objects made of organic materials have long since vanished, leaving primarily a few bone tools and the technological tradition of spear points as their only legacy."
Origins & evolution of ancient Near Eastern civilization, focusing on the impact of war. Looks at the agriculture, population, sociopolitical structure and culture.
2,025 words (approx. 8.1 pages), 10 sources, 1999, $ 71.95
From the Paper " War is a devastating experience for any civilization, but it is also often an engine for change, a spur to the development of new technology, the source of stories and legends, an economic drain and an economic spur often at the same time, and generally a force that can be creative a well as destructive. War was very much a part of the life of ancient mesopotamia, a region whose geography encouraged invasion so that the leadership of the Mesopotamian region had to think constantly about defense and its ramifications. The social life, economy, religion, literature, and politics of Mesopotamia were shaped by the warfare and the demands it made on the people for centuries.
This experience is reflective of that of many civilizations throughout the ancient world. Civilization developed following a pattern based on the ability of the human population to learn to.."
Archaeological analysis of religious, symbolic & sociocultural significance of pyramids & funeral rituals for Old Kingdom Egypt, 2658 B.C. to 2135 B.C.
2,925 words (approx. 11.7 pages), 8 sources, 1999, $ 103.95
From the Paper "The overwhelming majority of archaeological data about life in ancient Egypt comes not from the remains of daily living quarters, but from the burial chambers of the dead, and associated objects, such as writings on burial chamber walls and the preserved corpses found within. This provenance is rather appropriate as, from what scholars can ascertain, life in ancient Egypt was all but completely focused on preparation for death and the afterlife. This paper will discuss how the religious, symbolic, and sociocultural role of pyramids and funeral rituals were of importance to Old Kingdom Egypt, and to the civilization's conception of immortality.
Immortality was the most important goal in one's life, especially the immortality of the king or pharaoh. The well-being of all his people depended upon the careful administration of funeral.."
Abstract Examines subjects, cultural and historical contexts, artistic and religious significance of reliefs, rock art and temples, in the years 3500-1300 B.C
From the Paper "Artistic expression in any given age always develops from works, styles, and themes produced in earlier eras. The further back into history we go, the more difficult it may be to ascertain the source of a given culture and the art it produces. The wonders of Egypt have long fascinated archaeologists, historians, and art experts. This art did not develop out of whole cloth but instead had antecedents which can be discerned elsewhere on the continent of Africa, specifically the rock art of Africa which can be seen as a precursor of the Egyptian civilization that would develop to the north.
The earliest settlers in the Nile Valley reached the area some time around 4000 B.C., emerging from the neolithic culture of the Tasian villages of Upper Egypt and those of Merimdeh on the western edge of the Delta and on the shore of the lake in the ..."
Abstract "Friedrich Wilhelm Deichmann was an archaeologist and art historian whose primary interest was the study of early Christianity. Deichmann's many publications cover various topics in early Christian and Byzantine archaeology, including sarcophagi, mosaics, architecture, and painting.
From the Paper "Friedrich Wilhelm Deichmann was an archaeologist and art historian whose primary interest was the study of early Christianity. Deichmann's many publications cover various topics in early Christian and Byzantine archaeology, including sarcophagi, mosaics, architecture, and painting. His studies also encompassed facets of early Christian art and architecture throughout the late Roman and Byzantine empires--ranging from Nubia and northern Syria to Rome, Venice, Constantinople, and, especially, Ravenna. Deichmann was--at different times in his career--a studious cataloguer of primary data, an accomplished interpreter of historical and iconographic meanings, and an important explicator of scholarly and scientific method in the field of early Christian archaeology.
Deichmann was born in the German city of Jena in December ..."
An examination and comparison of cultural functions, styles, themes and subjects, historical significance, depiction of social realities and views on religion and death.
2,250 words (approx. 9 pages), 8 sources, 2000, $ 79.95
From the Paper "Although tomb paintings are the major source of information about life in ancient Egypt and the principal source of such information about ancient Etruria, the types of data they provide differ somewhat. For nearly 3,000 years Egyptian tombs were the resting places of the semi-divine pharaohs and members of their families and entourages. Depictions of life in the tomb paintings provide an enormous number of details of Egyptian life. Even though the activities depicted were the usually ritualistic behavior of divine beings rather than ordinary life, the position of the pharaohs as the guarantors of the continuity of the state, and of the very cycle of life itself, meant that everything fell within their sphere of influence. All manner of activities were, therefore, depicted in their tombs--whether they were part of the elaborate funerary processes or simply facets of the pharaohs'..."
Abstract This research will examine archaeological evidence associated with the story of Noah's Ark told in Genesis. The Genesis story of Noah's Ark, which describes a great flood that destroys all life and civilization except for an extended family and the extended family of livestock in its care, is premised on the idea that the family patriarch, Noah, received instructions from God to build a gigantic boat, or ark
From the Paper "Overview
This research will examine archaeological evidence associated with the story of Noah's Ark told in Genesis. The Genesis story of Noah's Ark, which describes a great flood that destroys all life and civilization except for an extended family and the extended family of livestock in its care, is premised on the idea that the family patriarch, Noah, received instructions from God to build a gigantic boat, or ark. The ark serves as home and haven, allowing Noah, family, and animals to ride out the 40-day rain and the long-term flood that follows. When the waters recede sufficiently, Noah and family return the animals to the world and then reestablish a human presence in the world. No tangible record of Noah and the flood exists except in Biblical text. However, Noah and the flood narrative have been identified..."
