A look at the possibility of the effect of certain groups of Indo-Aryans who immigrated to Europe about 5000 BC and their impact on the language and culture of Europe.
1,747 words (approx. 7 pages), 5 sources, 1998, $ 56.95
From the Paper "Roughly from around 5000BCE the Nomadic Indo-Aryan tribesmen known as the Praziks were just beginning to build the society which would later leave it's mark on almost every part of the Russian and central Asia steppe lands, Europe and East Asia. Praziks were one branch of Caucasians who probably spoke a Proto-European dialect of the Aryan language, from the early Neolithic period and throughout most of the bronze age however from the end of the bronze age and into the early iron age the Taklamakanian descendants of the Praziks began to mix with north central Asian peoples (around the beginning of the Hsia dynasty, roughly 2,000 to 1,300 BCE)."
An examination of the concerns, the myths, symbols, and rituals of the ancient Maya belief system, as related in Bassie-Sweet's book, "From the Mouth of the Dark Cave: Maya Mythology".
2,420 words (approx. 9.7 pages), 3 sources, 2000, $ 73.95
From the Paper "She examines the sculpture of the Late Classic Maya in order to produce a telling story of their myths, symbols, and rituals. Sweet focuses on the ritual recreation of the Maya belief system in connection with the use of natural and metaphorical caves and the depiction of these same caves in the symbolic representation found on the architecture of the Late Classic Maya period. She examines both the picture or image symbols and the hieroglyphic or text symbols. Sweet explores the relationship between the text and the image, focusing on the pictographic qualities of the text and how these pictographs relate to the symbols found in the image. In essence, the text is comparable to the written story or event and the image refers to an actual or a metaphorical part of the story or event."
Abstract This paper presents an overview of the history of ancient Ashkelon, located in present-day Israel, including details of archaeological finds.
From the Paper "For nearly 5,000 years, Askelon was one of the great seaports of the Mediterranean, but today Askelon is a forgotten name outside of Israel. It was located on the trade routes that ran from Turkey and Syria to Egypt and was a major seaport as far back as 3500 B.C. 40 miles south of Tel Aviv, it was the capital of the Canaanite kings, harbor of the Philistines, and "stomping grounds" of Sampson. "
Abstract This paper compares and contrasts the roles Solon and Cleisthenes played in the formation of the world's first democratic government.
From the Paper "The development of a democratic form of government in ancient Athens was arguably one of the most important occurrences in the history of mankind. Certain individuals played a major role in this important development. While Cleisthenes is often attributed the tag of ?the founder of Athenian democracy,? and deservedly so, we will see that Solon was of equal importance as Cleisthenes, and that they both had much to do with the founding of Athenian democracy."
Abstract This paper takes a look at the Permian and Cretaceous-Tertiary periods of life on Earth - pre-historic forms of life from sea creatures to land and air creatures. During both of these periods, mass extinction occurred and a comparison of these two extinctions is documented in this paper.
From the paper:
"From the perspective of daily human life, we often think of tragedy on the level of individual death and destruction, and the concept of mass extinction as being confined to a species or at worst, an ecosystem. However, over the course of the existence of the earth, the planet has weathered many greater catastrophes. Geologists must take a much longer-term perspective of catastrophe when studying extinction. This paper will compare and contrast the Permian and Cretaceous-Tertiary mass extinctions."
Abstract This paper analyzes a study done of the Glenrose Cannery Site in the 1970s. The various excavations at the site between 1969 and 1973 are discussed in detail, and the results are analysed and evaluated.
From the paper:
"The analysis of fish, pollen, shellfish, mammalian and avian remains and artifacts from the site were studied to find "the origins of the densely populated culturally complex, maritime adaptation of the Pacific Northwest Coast", and ?the origin of the Locarna Bach and Marpole phases in the last millenium B.C.? (Matson, 1976) Little is known about this and views range from Asiatio origins to local development. (Matson, 1976) ?Thus is was hoped that the investigation of the Glenrose midden would shed some light on the origins of the unique Northwest Coast pattern by detailing the subsistence strategies related to pre-Locarno material on the edge of the Fraser Delta.?
Abstract This paper examines the history of archaeology, and the impact that social historians have had in shaping its direction and definition. In order to present his case, the author looks at three different books on archaeology, both ancient and modern, by social historians. The author points out the strengths and weaknesses of these publications, which in some cases, are long on speculation, and short on facts.
From the Paper "This is not to say the Patterson's book is completely skewed, however. He situates archaeology into a wider historical context and acknowledges the influence of outside society- that, archaeology as a field did not, in fact, 'pull itself up by its own bootstraps. As an example of this he sites the first impact of the WPA during the great depression, and the larger affect it had after World War II when the GI Bill allowed many soldiers who had previously worked with the WPA to pursue a full career in Archaeology. He also traces the class structure of archaeology from its beginning as an aristocratic and upper middle class phenomena to its situation in middle class academia in the 1950's. Finally, he follows the fields movement from private collectors, to universities, to Federal government, and its final gradual privatization under the expanding clauses of United States historic sites protection."
Abstract This paper discusses the use of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance spectroscopy (NMR), Petrographic analysis, microscopy and radiography, Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), and infrared spectroscopy (IR) in examining archeological remains. The author includes an application of these methods. Pictures and graphs are included.
From the Paper "There are many ways one can study archaeological materials. This paper will focus on Nuclear Magnetic Resonance spectroscopy (NMR), Petrographic analysis, microscopy and radiography, Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), and infrared spectroscopy (IR). All are part of a process that helps to identify many materials, which in turn provide answers to parts of the past. They are all very useful tools for the examination of archaeological artifacts and many other things."
Abstract The purpose of this paper is to introduce, discuss, and analyze the temple of Pharaoh Ramesses I built by his son Seti I. Some of the areas discussed include the Temple of Osiris and its significance in history. Special attention is given to the figures carved into the walls of the temple, as they are examined in detail in order to give us a better understanding of their importance in Ramesses life and times. The hieroglyphics found on the walls are also detailed and analyzed.
From the Paper "The largest figure is Horus, the son of Isis and Osiris, with a falcon head. He holds an ankh, in one hand, which is a sacred representation of life, often associated with Isis and Osiris. Some call it "the original cross." (Okara, 2001). He also holds up his hand as if to protect his father. Horus ruled the world of the living, so he's here to watch over the living as they give their gifts to his father. Horus is larger than the cult figures of Osiris, but there are two figures of Osiris, and only one Horus, which again brings out Osiris' dominance."
Abstract This paper looks at the field of archeology and how it has evolved over the years. The author uses Mayan culture as a case study in order to illustrate the advances that have been made in archeology over the centuries. A brief history of archeology in North America is given before detailing the process that the archaeologists used in uncovering the history of the Mayans. It discusses the tools the archaeologists have changed because of scientific advances, and how this has disproved many of the early theories about Mayan culture.
From the Paper "Early excavators and scholars of Mayan life also determined that intimately linked to Mayan religion was the impressive development of astronomical studies ans mathematics, including the use of zero. Mayan astronomy underlay a complex calendrical system that featured an accurately determined solar year (18 months of 20 days, plus an unlucky 5-day period), a sacred year of 260 days (13 cycles of 20 named days), and a variety of longer cycles culminating in the Long Count, based on a zero date in 3114 BC. Mayan astronomers compiled precise tables of positions for the Moon and Venus and were able to predict solar eclipses."
Abstract This paper is a first person transcript about the Aztec culture. It is a journey through time describing in-depth the speaker's findings about the Aztecs. It also details the speakers' journey to Tenochtitlan and Nahautl, Mexico. It is an historical documentation of this journey through time and cultures which took place in 1438 AD.
From the Paper "I am now preparing to travel to the year 1438 AD to gain a more personal knowledge of Aztec culture. I have long been fascinated with Aztec civilization, and because of the advanced technology of this incredible machine, I will now be able to see for myself what life was like in the time before the Conquistadors. I have preset my destination to a small secluded valley outside of Tenachtitlan, the capital city of the Aztec Empire, and what will eventually become Mexico City.
"As I wait for the complicated systems of my craft to cycle through their stages, I let my mind drift back to when I was a child, enthralled by the science fiction novel The Time Machine. "If only you could have known, Aitch Gee", I muse to myself.
"All systems are now cycled up and ready to engage?..Signed Off."
Abstract This paper studies the Bronze Age which was one of the great eras of our European past. It describes the widespread adoption of bronze metallurgy across Europe at the time, as well as the many technological advances. It examines the levels of literacy as well as the society and the writings of the Bronze Age scribes. It also discusses "The Linear B Decipherment" and how Evans continued to study it after the Balkan War. Finally, the paper concludes that the effects of writing and literacy on society were great and significant.
From the Paper "Anthropologists and archaeologists call certain societies "iron age" or ?bronze age.? In doing this they recognize that the properties of the main metal used by a society's technology greatly affect both its use and through this the nature of that society. For instance, bronze unlike iron is too soft to be used for ploughing; it is an alloy. Bronze can be smelted at lower temperatures than iron which need specialized supplies of charcoal. All these facts affect societies which use bronze and iron. For example, since bronze cannot be used for ploughing these societies cannot produce in many regions the large agriculture surplus iron societies can; since bronze requires tin bronze age societies had to trade, etc. (Claiborne, 1974) I believe the same parallel exists between the different characteristics of different writing systems and its use as a communication technology in a society."
Abstract This paper looks at the discoveries of archaeologists of the first civilization in the Louisiana area. It discusses the geography of the time, the history of investigation, influences from other cultures, ceremonial findings and material culture that have been discovered by archaeologists.
From the Paper "It is thought that man first arrived in Louisiana around 10,000 B.C. The delta of the Mississippi River began to form around 5,000 B.C., and man did not arrive in present day Jefferson Parish until about 500 B.C. The pre-history of human habitation in the delta region can be divided into five major cultural periods: Tchefuncte, Marksville, Troyville, Coles Creek, and the Plaquemine Period. In the lower Mississippi valley, all cultural activity on a Hopewellian horizon is historically subsumed under the term "Marksville". Beginning somewhere around 100 B.C., the resident Tchefuncte cultural system began to spread around the lower Mississippi valley. The Marksville Period overlaps with the end of the Tchefuncte spanning from around 200 B.C. to around 100 A.D. The Marksville culture spread into Louisiana from the Ohio Valley bringing primitive agriculture. The cultural changes are best seen in ceramics, which closely represent certain Hopewellian pottery of the Illinois valley, and mortuary practices, such as burial mounds. These cultural changes are from which the Marksville culture came to light. The time frame of the culture is 100B.C. to A.D. 400. The Troyville period succeeded the Marksville period from about A.D. 500 to about A.D. 1100. The Troyville culture is somewhat indistinctly defined and represents a transition between the Marksville Period and the later Coles Creek and Plaquemine Periods."
A discussion of new isotopic evidence along with other new data which is leading the way in painting a new picture of the Neanderthal man and his subsistence patterns.
Abstract This paper presents detailed descriptions of previous evidence and theory for neanderthal subsistence pattern of a scavenger plus an attempt to topple that theory in light of the new evidence at hand. This new evidence includes isotopic data that suggest a meat only diet and other studies that suggest wide spread active hunting through wear patterns on tools. These point to a subsistence pattern of a top level predator not that of a lowly scavenger.
From the Paper "Of any ancient fossil hominid it's a hands down, no contest winner for the prize of best known and understood1. Say "Neanderthal", and archaeologist and laymen alike would not have to work hard to conjure up the classical short stocky body frame, the indicative brow ridge and the protruding facial features of the Neanderthal people. But it is not all that simple, while we may have a plethora of faunal and lithic remains including those of the skeleton, the pictures of life style, diet, culture, and land use for example that these paint are not as complete as one might think. Often times the pictures one can paint from these remains are very cloudy take Neanderthal subsistence patterns and diet for instance. Neanderthal subsistence has been under heated controversy from its infancy. The two camps have their talons well immersed in the flesh of the faunal and lithic fossil records. The prevailing theory has been that Neanderthal subsistence and acquisition of foodstuffs as primarily a scavenging life style. However, in light of recent discoveries and new isotopic analysis a review of the lithic and faunal evidence is necessary and many are revising their previous theories. The picture is dramatically changing, isotopic data along with Neanderthal contemporaries at the KRM site in Africa are providing archaeologists with a picture of an organized people who were at the top of their environments trophic pyramid. Recent research on hominid strategies for meat procurement has focused on the interpretations of bones recovered from archaeological sites. Binford's 1984 analysis of faunal collections from Middle Stone Age deposits of the Klasies River Mouth Cave in South Africa identified carnivore activity and hominid scavenging of carnivore kills as major sources of the large mammal remains at the early Late Pleistocene site. From the skeletal parts represented and patterns of cut-marks on the bones, Binford concluded, "in short, there is nothing in the data from Klasies River Mouth to suggest technologically-aided hunting, or even tactical hunting, as such" (1984). Although this interpretation of the Klasies River Mouth fauna is disputed by Klein (1986), Binford's conclusion has been extended to the whole of hominid subsistence prior to the Middle-Upper Paleolithic transition of the Late Pleistocene (Binford 1984). For the sake of argument and our purpose of substantiating Neanderthals as top-level hunters, Binford's extension will serve to illustrate the faunal evidence for scavenging vs. hunting."
Abstract The site of Ur, an ancient city in Mesopotamia, is an archaeological site rich in findings of the Sumerian culture and history. This paper explains how the city of Ur was discovered in the mid seventeenth century and details some of the fascinating findings of the place such as the Royal Cemetery and a detailed burial chamber.
From the Paper "At the end of the pit, the team found the king's tomb chamber. A second stone chamber was built up against it, with the tomb of the queen, who owned the chariot and other offerings found in the upper pit. Her name, Shub-ad, was inscribed on a cylinder seal. Her body was still in the tomb. The upper part of her body was completely hidden by a mass of beads of gold, silver, lapis lazuli, carnelian, agate, and chalcedony. Her headdress was a more elaborate version of the ones found on the remains of the court ladies.
"This discovery showed that the graves of the king and queen had been exactly alike but that the queen's chamber had sunk below the ground level of her grave pit. According to Woolley, they were probably husband and wife, and the king had died first. The queen, wanting to lie as close to him as possible, had been buried next to him."
