Abstract The author discusses Ancient Egyptian art as an expression of religious devotion and belief, arguing that the monotheistic revolution spearheaded by Akhnaton led to an artistic revolution.
From the Paper "The civilization of the Ancient Egyptians, encompassing art at its very core, was one borne out of religious and cultural beliefs and values. According to numerous art historians, archeologists and Egyptologists, within the context of Ancient Egyptian culture and religion, art was not a luxury or a pastime but, as Leslie A. White states, part and parcel of Ancient Egypt and its religious framework (91-92). Dietrick E. Thomeson explains this view even further, arguing that the fusion between art and religion was such in Ancient Egypt that it was the first, and one of the very few, if not only, countries in history in which artists and architects were state employees and bureaucrats. In other words, artistic endeavour was in a permanent and ongoing state of activity and the bureaucratic form that it assumed, allowed for the continuation of that activity insofar as it ensures the constant planning of projects and their execution. However, while that bureaucratic form, on the one hand, and the religious nature of art, on the other, kept Ancient Egypt artistically rich, it ensured a static form to art, preventing development, evolution and change."
Abstract This paper examines the extent to which, within the ancient Egyptian worldview, art was a religious endeavour and expression. It looks at how Akhnaton's redefinition of religion had a profound impact on ancient Egyptian art, injecting it with a degree of realism never before seen.
From the Paper "The civilization of the Ancient Egyptians, encompassing art at its very core, was one borne out of religious and cultural beliefs and values. According to numerous art historians, archeologists and Egyptologists, within the context of Ancient Egyptian culture and religion, art was not a luxury or a pastime but, as Leslie A. White states, part and parcel of Ancient Egypt and its religious framework (91-92). Dietrick E. Thomeson explains this view even further, arguing that the fusion between art and religion was such in Ancient Egypt that it was the first, and one of the very few, if not only, countries in history in which artists and architects were state employees and bureaucrats."
Abstract Civilizations throughout the years have dealt with disease and illness in numerous ways. This paper examines the ancient Egyptians and determines how they practiced medicine during their time and how it relates to modern medicine. The paper also examines the materials or tools involved in their medical practices, major medical discoveries and methods used by physicians to heal patients.
Introduction
Discoveries
Practises of Medicine
Physicians and Priests
Embalming and Autopsies
Rituals
Magicians
Keeping Records
Important Documents
Understanding the Body
Medication and Treatments
Diseases
Holistic Treatments
Tools
Herbal Medicines
Conclusion
References
From the Paper "Ancient physicians prescribed many remedies that are still in use today. Then, as now, honey and milk were used for the irritation of the throat and respiratory infections. The physicians also knew how to "use suppositories, herbal dressings and enemas and widely used castor oil (crystalinks.com/egyptmedicine.html)." Medications were used to treat Egyptians suffering from a parasite which attacked the urinary tract, and this parasite still plagues the Egyptians of today."
Abstract The Silk Road, the ancient 4,000 mile caravan route, was used primarily for trade and linked East to West, from China to Rome. This paper covers the nearly 2000 years of history of the Silk Road, which served the world's four main civilizations from approximately 500 B.C. to 1500 A.D. as the major highway for transporting material goods and knowledge between Europe (till Rome), the Near East, India, and China.
Paper Outline:
The Geographical Setting
The Silk Road
Travel of Ideas and Techniques
Music of the Silk Road
Bibliography
From the Paper "The Silk Road - a network of trade routes that connected East Asia to the Mediterranean--was the main conduit for the spread and exchange of goods, ideas, religions, and cultural elements among the many peoples of Eurasia. Along it, Buddhism spread from India to China, Korea, and Japan; Islam from the Middle East to the subcontinent and Southeast Asia; Christianity--particularly Nestorian Christianity--to the Far East. Not only silk and spices but paper, printing processes, gunpowder, the magnetic compass, and prized ceramics and laquerware flowed westward, while glassware and gold and silver metalwork flowed eastward. Developments in mathematics and the sciences--as well as in art and music--coursed back and forth, building upon each other. The legacy of the exchanges enacted along the Silk Road from about 500 B.C. until A.D. 1500 permeates cultures in both East and West to this day."
Abstract The Australopithecines constitutes a group of extinct hominids that are closely related to humans. The Australopithecines were believed to be bi-pedal organisms, making them an integral link in the chain of evolution leading to modern man. This essay explores the evolution from ancient primates, to bi-pedal australopithicenes, to modern man. It includes several cited sources.
From the Paper "The word "hominid" refers to "any of a family (Hominidae) of erect bipedal primate mammals comprising recent humans together with extinct ancestral and related forms" (Merriam Webster). Hominids are included in the super-family of apes, the Hominoidea, in which the members are referred to as hominoids. Though the fossil record of hominids is currently fragmented and incomplete, there is enough material present to provide a healthy sketch of the evolutionary history of homo sapiens. Inasmuch as the Australopithecines were "bipedal primate mammals," they can be classified as ancient hominids (Merriam Webster). Many changes in the physical environment contributed to the evolution of these early humans."
Abstract The great Aztec civilization was so foreign and so utterly isolated from other world civilizations, that, when the Spanish conquistadors first saw it, their emotions were a mixture of awe and horror. They were awed by the artistic, technological and social advances they witnessed; but they were horrified by their pagan ways, the human sacrifices and the cannibalism they saw. This paper examines the origins of the Aztecs, and examines this civilization in terms of mythology, agriculture, craft and religion. It also traces the destruction of the Aztecs by the Spaniards in the 16th Century.
From the Paper "As limited as the land devoted to producing maize was, animal sources of nutrition were even harder to come by. "Dogs, turkeys, and the Muscovy duck were the only domesticated animals in ancient Mesoamerica. All were used for food, but they made only a minor contribution to the Aztec diet." (Smith 2003:63). This situation is most closely analogous to the rice crop of eastern Asia, and contrasts sharply with the ancient West, where numerous animals were domesticated on a large scale for the purposes of nutrition. By virtue of their dependence upon maize, the Aztecs developed some of the most advanced farming techniques in the world."
Abstract This paper examines life in ancient Egypt by providing information on different aspects of this fascinating time in history. The paper examines the architecture of the time, including the pyramids and tombs and other public buildings. The paper looks at the social classes which existed in ancient Egypt, from the Pharoah down to the lowly farmers. The paper also discusses divorce, hygiene, entertainment, religion and the rights of women.
From the Paper "Cleanliness was very important to the Egyptians, and most people bathed every day, using a cleansing cream consisting of lime, oil, and perfume. Additionally, people rubbed themselves with perfumed oil daily, made by mixing flowers and scented oil with fat. People of all ages, children included, painted their faces. Green malachite was mixed with oil to make "Khol", and was used to accent the eyes, it was also believed to have magical powers. Red ochre was mixed with water and applied to the lips and cheeks, and henna was used to dye fingernails."
Abstract This paper explains that urbanization, the arrangement of the design of the private and public buildings of a city and that of the intra-city arteries of communication and fortifications, reflects the needs and aspirations of the community within the existing frame of the ecological and technological areas of the period. The author points out that during the last phase of the Assyrian empire, beginning with the reign of Ashur-Dan II (934-912 BC) and lasting until almost 600 BC, when the Assyrian empire dominated most of Mesopotamia and parts of Palestine, Egypt, Media and Anatolia, the Assyrian kings radically transformed the cultural, political and geographical landscape of Upper Mesopotamia by the implementation of the processes of urbanization. The paper stresses that the Chaldean tribal groups, a loosely connected with prominent chieftains opposing urbanization, shifted allegiance according to the distribution of military strength, refused to pay taxes or to render services to the government, waylaid caravans and to attack and plunder settlements and small cities.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Program of Urbanization
Administrative Restructuring
Capitals
Economic Foundation
Southern Societies
Uruk and Ur
Anti-Urban Bias
Citizenship
Conclusion
From the Paper "In these Mesopotamian cities, there grew a concept of citizenship that was the result of the driving force of the urbanization process. The old and important cities enjoyed certain privileges and exemptions with respect to the king and his power. They had a legal status that differentiated in essential points from that of any other community, In Babylonia, these cities were Nippur, Babylon, and Sippar, in Assria, the old capital Asur, and later, Harran in Upper Mesopotamia. In principle, the inhabitants of these free cities claimed freedom from work, freedom from military service, as well as a tax exemption. These privileges were neither new nor exception, Certain persons with restructed libery, in the Sumerian empire of Ur were said to be exempted from carrying earth, and inhabitants of Nippur were exempted from military service and paying tribute in silver and gold. This shows that the resistance against the claims of a central authority for services of its subjects is characteristics not only of a non urbanized group, but also one of the aspirations of city-dwellers."
Abstract The writer of this paper analyzes the ancient Egyptian view of death as a transitional stage in the process to a superior life in the next world where one reaches their full potential. This paper also details the tradition of preserving the body through mummification and the various rituals performed during the burial ceremony.
From the Paper "Three other aspects that are just as important are the physical body, the shadow, and the name. Egyptians believed that since the shadow was always present it could not exist without a person and neither could the person exist without it. It is usually shown as a small human figure painted entirely in black. The Egyptians also believed that the name, since it is given at birth could make a person live as long as the name is spoken. This is why such great efforts were made to protect one's name."
Abstract The recent discovery of the polychrome paintings of the Olmec civilization in the caves of Oxtotitlan has a number of scholars searching for answers. The paper shows that some of the paintings are quite substantial in size and unfortunately the presence of tourists and exposure to the elements are beginning to have a negative effect on the paintings. The paper shows that the use of the cave as a place to hold religious ceremonies may be causing the most damage to these paintings.
Abstract This paper discusses the benefits of archaeology to the scientific and academic communities, as well as its ability to question previous historical paradigms related to the earliest dates of settlement in a given region, or the evolution and migration of early hominids. The paper gives some examples of famous archaeological finds, discussing in particular, the Kennewick Man and the effects that its discovery has had on our previous knowledge of history.
From the Paper "The Kennewick Man is one of the most notable finds in recent archaeological history. Discovered in Washington State by casual passers-by in 1996, the Kennewick Man's remains epitomize the controversy over NAGPRA. At first believed to be the remains of a Caucasian male who might have looked "like Patrick Stewart," the Kennewick Man called into question the theory that the first inhabitants of North America were Mongoloid peoples who traversed the Bering Strait (Miller 1997). Since then, the Kennewick Man has also become a political prisoner, in the middle of the battle between repatriation and scientific enquiry."
Abstract In this article, the writer notes that Joyce Tyldesley is a trained Egyptologist specializing in ancient Egyptian archeology. The writer then points out that she brings both her experience in the study of artifacts as well as her knowledge of ancient Egyptian history to her latest book entitled "Nefertiti". The writer relates that, although the book closes with a brief synopsis of the world's reaction to the discovery of the famous Nefertiti bust, most of the book is devoted to historical, rather than pictorial and archaeological analysis, in its documentation of the period. The writer maintains that the analysis of Egyptian images are used to elucidate the history within the covers of this small book, rather than for the sake of beauty alone, although the subject of the work is one of the most famous Egyptian beauties every preserved in artistic form.
From the Paper "Tyldesley frames her book on the Egyptian queen as an attempt to answer an unanswerable mystery. Tyldesley does not offer an answer to the disappearance of queen Nefertiti from history, rather she theorizes that because of the queen's erasure from the lists of Egyptian rulers, the queen has given rise to considerable, often unsubstantiated speculation as to Nefertiti's place in history. Tyldesley uses what historical evidence remains about the previous period of Egyptian monarchical history, along with the surviving icons of the reign of Nefertiti's husband to show how contradictory the evidence is about Nefertiti's identity."
An examination of the life and beliefs of the pharaoh Amenophis IV, who renamed himself Akhenaten and changed the entire structure of Egyptian civilization during his reign from 1353 - 1336 B.C.
Abstract This paper explores the life and times of Amenophis IV, who replaced the polytheistic traditions of Egypt with the monotheistic cult of Aten soon after he succeeded his father as pharaoh. The writer describes the historical and religious background leading up to his changes and the cult of Aten in detail. The paper also describes the distinct and innovative form of art, known as Amarna art, that was initiated by Akhenaten, and many of the reliefs and sculptures that remain from this period, including several of his queen, Nefertiti. In addition, the paper explains how Horemheb systematically dismantled Aten's temples and shrines, effectively eliminating any trace of Akhenaten or his monotheistic cult. The writer concludes that Akhenaten remains to this day and perhaps always will be an enigma in Egyptian history.
Outline:
The Ascension of Amenophis IV
The One True God
New God, New Art
Nefertiti - "The Beautiful One is Come"
Erasing Akhenaten
Heretic or Genius?
From the Paper "Amenophis IV, who by the end of his fifth year of reign had taken the name Akhenaten, initiated a vastly distinct form of art during his time as pharaoh, which has been designated as the "Amarna Period". Akhenaten's fervent devotion to a monotheistic religion was extremely evident in the various pieces of art from this period. There seems to be a direct correlation between the exclusive role of Aten, Akhenaten's sun-god, and that of the pharaoh, stressing Aten's unique position in Egyptian religion. Aten's names were written in cartouches, like those of the royal family, and the royal family was close to Aten to the point of monopolization. The king and queen were Aten's delegates, and it was only to them that Aten, portrayed as a sun-disc, extended its arm-like rays in reliefs and carvings."
Abstract This papers discuses the methods and procedure used by anthropologists in the discovery of the Uluburun Shipwreck discovery.
Specifically, the paper presents a description of the site, artifacts found and methods used at Uluburun. The paper concludes that, by studying the contents, origins and methods of Mediterranean trading vessels, the scientific community is able to piece together a cohesive picture of Mediterranean cultures circa 1300 B.C.E.
From the Paper "Many other artifacts were found at the site. These were comprised of personal items, weapons, and mercantile items. Weights for scales were found, which make sense being present on a trading vessel. A ram's horn trumpet was found. This is similar to the modern shofar in the Jewish tradition. Many gold ambulates were found; as well as pectorals, and other jewelry. Much of the gold was in jewelry form, but some was in the scrap form, as a byproduct of jewelry making or simply for later use. Foodstuffs were also found."
Tags: dendochronology, trading vessel, ingots, canaanite ceramic jars, late bronze age
Abstract This paper examines what is understood about Minoan civilization from the vast amounts of archeological evidence that has been found. It discusses the social system and trading practices of the culture. The paper then looks at the types of Minoan city construction and the form of writing that has been discovered and associated with the Minoans.
From the Paper "The result of such extensive trade meant increasing wealth, which was invested in extensive building projects, the arts, and technology. The Minoans, for example, are the only known civilization that constructed multi-roomed buildings that served various sectors of the community, including the poor, while also being the first to have built a plumbing/sanitary system. In addition, it is believed that they were also the first society to include "leisure" in their societal development, which included sports, such as bull jumping and boxing, and which were available to both men and women (Hooker, 1996)."
