Abstract This paper looks at the discoveries of archaeologists of the first civilization in the Louisiana area. It discusses the geography of the time, the history of investigation, influences from other cultures, ceremonial findings and material culture that have been discovered by archaeologists.
From the Paper "It is thought that man first arrived in Louisiana around 10,000 B.C. The delta of the Mississippi River began to form around 5,000 B.C., and man did not arrive in present day Jefferson Parish until about 500 B.C. The pre-history of human habitation in the delta region can be divided into five major cultural periods: Tchefuncte, Marksville, Troyville, Coles Creek, and the Plaquemine Period. In the lower Mississippi valley, all cultural activity on a Hopewellian horizon is historically subsumed under the term "Marksville". Beginning somewhere around 100 B.C., the resident Tchefuncte cultural system began to spread around the lower Mississippi valley. The Marksville Period overlaps with the end of the Tchefuncte spanning from around 200 B.C. to around 100 A.D. The Marksville culture spread into Louisiana from the Ohio Valley bringing primitive agriculture. The cultural changes are best seen in ceramics, which closely represent certain Hopewellian pottery of the Illinois valley, and mortuary practices, such as burial mounds. These cultural changes are from which the Marksville culture came to light. The time frame of the culture is 100B.C. to A.D. 400. The Troyville period succeeded the Marksville period from about A.D. 500 to about A.D. 1100. The Troyville culture is somewhat indistinctly defined and represents a transition between the Marksville Period and the later Coles Creek and Plaquemine Periods."
Abstract "Friedrich Wilhelm Deichmann was an archaeologist and art historian whose primary interest was the study of early Christianity. Deichmann's many publications cover various topics in early Christian and Byzantine archaeology, including sarcophagi, mosaics, architecture, and painting.
From the Paper "Friedrich Wilhelm Deichmann was an archaeologist and art historian whose primary interest was the study of early Christianity. Deichmann's many publications cover various topics in early Christian and Byzantine archaeology, including sarcophagi, mosaics, architecture, and painting. His studies also encompassed facets of early Christian art and architecture throughout the late Roman and Byzantine empires--ranging from Nubia and northern Syria to Rome, Venice, Constantinople, and, especially, Ravenna. Deichmann was--at different times in his career--a studious cataloguer of primary data, an accomplished interpreter of historical and iconographic meanings, and an important explicator of scholarly and scientific method in the field of early Christian archaeology.
Deichmann was born in the German city of Jena in December ..."
Abstract In 1912, Charles Dawson, an amateur archaeologist, revealed to some of his scientific friends that he had found a curious skull in a gravel pit near Piltdown, England. The case of the Piltdown Man turned out to be one of the greatest hoaxes of the 20th century. The paper shows that, allegedly, the unearthing of these fragments was proof that man evolved from apes. The human brain case and the ape-like jaw fit the theory of the day, which held that the brain would evolve faster than the body. The ruse was to create the "missing link" and thus prove Darwin's theory. The paper traces the events of the forgery and its implications on the scientific world after it was discovered to be a hoax. The paper includes illustrations.
From the Paper "In conclusion, The Piltdown Forgery was a deception with far reaching tentacles. Whether it was Dawson, Hinton, Theilhard or Woodward, the effects of this deception still cast doubts on legitimate archeological finds. This however is advantageous for both the anthropological and archeological communities. It requires science to base its discoveries on pure science rather than raw emotion. The moral of Piltdown is that science is fallible and human passions sometimes overshadow the facts. Occasionally, science does not always take the most direct route in fulfilling its aim of understanding nature."
This paper analyzes how interaction and traces of interactions between humans and animals can aid archaeologists in studying human behavior throughout history.
Abstract This paper defines zoo-archaeology and faunal analysis as the scientific study of animal remains from archaeological sites. This paper presents three case studies which illustrate the practical use of animal remains in aiding archaeologists to understand the past. The writer of this paper proves that it is possible via faunal analysis to establish such findings as diet, social status, religion and trade. The writer contends and explains how the study of animal remains is an effective and productive method of discovering more about the interaction between people and animals throughout history. This paper also contains an illustrative graph relevant to this particular topic.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
Definition and Background
Case Studies
Conclusion
References Cited
From the Paper "Hierakonpolis is a collection of sites dating from the Palaeolithic period through to the Roman period with the HK-6 site being a cemetery. It is the HK-6 site Warman investigates with some interesting finds.
The first point Warman makes regarding HK-6 is it appears animal bones have been deliberately preserved and buried at the site alongside human remains. One such specimen found at HK-6 is of a Bos or cow. Information obtained from the remains is of significance when related to past activities of people at HK-6. Warman states it is the manner in which the remains are preserved and buried that is of special interest in relation to the religious significance past people placed on the site."
Abstract In this article, the writer describes the different modern technologies that are utilized by archaeologists. The writer discusses how such technologies affect the historical values of the artifacts discovered.
In this paper the writer determines the impact of the technologies on the future of archaeology. Further, the writer discusses the various advantages and disadvantages of modern technologies in the field of archaeology.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
Background of the Study
Presentation
Excavation and Research
Restoration
Preservation
Discussion
Statement of the Problem
Significance of the Study
Objectives
Scope and Limitation
Participants
Research Design
Methodology and Research Instrument
Statistical Treatment
Data Presentation and Analysis
Conclusion
References
From the Paper "Archaeology is a difficult profession. Archaeologists must do constant and thorough research on the subject matter to ensure discovery of real artifacts. In this regard, modern archaeology is now utilizing different methods and strategies in excavation, research, restoration and preservation that are necessary for the development and improvement of archaeology. These methods also include the application of modern technologies such as computers, modern gadgets that are capable of enhancing imagery of the artifacts and equipment that are capable of capturing the uniqueness and richness of the archaeological artifacts discovered.
The future of archaeology will, in any manner possible, continue to be affected by the evolution of modern technologies. Their effects may either be positive or negative."
Abstract The paper reviews and discusses the book, "1491: New Revelations of the Americas before Columbus", by Charles Mann. The paper explains that the book reveals how the "New World" for the Europeans was not new at all. The paper relates Mann's revelation that archaeologists and anthropologists have verified that at least 100 million people lived in the Americas before Columbus arrived. The paper relates that Mann explores findings in three specific areas: Indian demography (Part I), Indian origins (Part II) and Indian ecology (Part III).
From the Paper "The most interesting aspect about 1491 is that Mann compiles information from a large number of reputable sources, which has never been done before. Many anthropologists and archaeologists have written studies on the topics contained in the book, but they remained in academia and not for the layman. Mann not only assembles many of these scientific findings (he apologizes that it would be impossible to cover everything written), but writes about them in an understandable and appealing fashion. At times, he gets the readers muddled with too much technical information and names of tribes, but most often it is just an interesting read."
Abstract This paper looks at the field of archeology and how it has evolved over the years. The author uses Mayan culture as a case study in order to illustrate the advances that have been made in archeology over the centuries. A brief history of archeology in North America is given before detailing the process that the archaeologists used in uncovering the history of the Mayans. It discusses the tools the archaeologists have changed because of scientific advances, and how this has disproved many of the early theories about Mayan culture.
From the Paper "Early excavators and scholars of Mayan life also determined that intimately linked to Mayan religion was the impressive development of astronomical studies ans mathematics, including the use of zero. Mayan astronomy underlay a complex calendrical system that featured an accurately determined solar year (18 months of 20 days, plus an unlucky 5-day period), a sacred year of 260 days (13 cycles of 20 named days), and a variety of longer cycles culminating in the Long Count, based on a zero date in 3114 BC. Mayan astronomers compiled precise tables of positions for the Moon and Venus and were able to predict solar eclipses."
Abstract This paper discusses the explorations and discoveries made at Copan in Honduras. Long thought of as the greatest example of ancient Mayan culture, Copan has been a wellspring of discoveries for archaeologists. The paper shows that not only did archaeologists find the longest line of Mayan text on the Hieroglyphic Stairway, but they also found a temple buried under a newer temple that is still completely intact. Several tombs were discovered, telling the lineage of the Copanecan dynasty.
From the Paper "The fascination with the Mayan civilization seems to grow greater as time goes on. Their ancient civilization seems far more advanced than what we today would expect of a people of that primitive time in history. Although there are many Mayan sites and cities spread throughout Central America, one of the most exciting cities to explore and discover the nature of the Mayan civilization is Copan. Copan serves as a great resource of Mayan information to both the scholar and the everyday fan of Mayan life."
This paper suggests that further exploitation and increased specific data bring to light new patterns in the biogeographic model for the arid region of Australia.
Abstract Arrival of the original Australians has long been a topic of debate amongst anthropologists and archaeologists. The questions of why, how and when Greater Australia was colonized are often asked. The biogeographic colonization model proposed by Peter Veth has galvanized archaeologists into pursuing specific questions at regional levels. This paper looks at that model using the following format.
Table of Contents:
Abstract
Introduction
Arid Region
Paleoenvironment
Islands in the Interior
Central Refuge
Corridors
Barriers
Dissecting the Islands
Biogeographic Regions
Technology
Social Transformation
Summary
Future Research
Conclusion
References
From the Paper "Paleoenvironment information is derived from 'geomorphological and paleoecological research in Australia and New Guinea? (Mulvaney and Kamminga 1999). Sites at Lake Fromme, Lake Eyre and Willandra indicate higher precipitation rates from 40,000 to 25,000 BP, followed by a colder drier climate c. 21,000 ? 15,000 BP, known as the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). During the LGM sea levels were 130 metres below present shorelines increasing Australia's overall land area, connecting New Guinea in the North and Tasmania to the South. Mulvaney (1999:116) suggests a reduction in warm surrounding ocean and increased landmass was responsible for creating intense inland aridity. Paradoxically, the intense aridity associated with the LGM palaeoenvironment coincides with human occupation dates for the arid region. Although, Ross et al., (Lourandos 1992) maintains ?The arid interior has always been dry, in geomorphic terms.? During this period, inland lake levels fluctuated until c. 14,000 BP when most inland lakes became dry, possibly extending the arid area into present day semi?arid boundaries (Fig. 1) until "a general climatic amelioration [began] towards the start of the Holocene" (Lourandos 1997)."
Abstract This paper examines the relationships between archaeologists and the descendants of those they study, particularly in the North American southwest desert. The paper specifically looks at the Anasazi and their Hopi and Zuni descendants and the differences between the archaeologists' interpretation of history and that of the native people. The paper also looks at the role of Pan-Indian identity and ethnicity.
Abstract The paper discusses the Hollywood image of the archaeologist and the discipline of anthropology. The paper defines archaeology and the role of anthropologists. The paper describes how the movie "Indiana Jones" makes archaeology look dangerous, exciting and extremely profitable while the realities of the discipline are totally different. The paper illustrates how Hollywood alters fact into fantasy to create its own version of anthropology and asserts that the character of Indiana Jones is not representative of the average archaeologist.
From the Paper "Indiana Jones makes archaeology look dangerous, exciting, and extremely profitable. The realities of the discipline are far different, as most professional archaeologists know. While Jones always finds the treasure, gets the girl, and escapes from the enemy, the real world of archaeology involves patience, long, tedious hours of digging and recovery, and more hours cataloging and indexing, often with few monetary rewards. However, discovering missing items from the past is enough reward for many anthropologists. Unlike Indiana Jones, their greatest rewards come from finding links to tie together ancient lives, rather than treasure for display in the world's museums."
Abstract In this article, the writer notes that as more and more time is spent on excavating and preserving lesser known Native-American sites, archaeologists are uncovering much older and unconventional historical sites. The writer points out that Native-American burial sites continue to pop up around the country as more and more of the land is continually developed. These sites are providing a much clearer picture of the ancient residents of the United States. The writer discusses that thanks to the work of archaeologists nationwide, these ancient cultures are being preserved through their links with modern day tribes, who are now able to explore their past further. Modern archeology has played a primary role in the discovery, but more importantly the preservation, of Native-American sacred burial sites. The writer concludes that by preserving these sacred sites, we are keeping a culture alive which was almost forgotten; a culture which predates European dominance in the Americas.
From the Paper "Minnesota legislation also protects sites from removal of any material content from protected lands. Any failures to obey such legislation can result in criminal felony charges. The State Archeologist at the Minnesota Historical Society is in charge of excavating and authenticating possible burial sites, showing archaeology's importance in creating and maintaining legislation involving ancient historical sites.
"Many people wonder why the Federal Government and State authorities should spend effort to protect these sites. First, these sites provide crucial details about the American past. They also provide links to modern day Native American cultures."
From the Paper "During the winter of 1963-1964, world renound archaeologist, Yigael Yadin, led an excavation of Mt. Masada. In a research paper, published at Hebrew University, by Hershel Shanks, one of the archaeologist at Masada, three questions are asked that may discredit the events at Mt. Masada: 1) If the Jews did commit suicide, then where are their bodies?, 2) If Titus was a by the book general, then why did the Romans not storm the fort upon breaking through the wall?, 3) If Flavius Josephus was not present to witness the events, then how can we trust his account? These questions are hard to answer, because the only sources that we have are the writings of Josephus and the results of the excavations at Masada. To analyze the events of Masada we have no choice, but to use some speculation to bring all of the information together for a reasonable conclusion."
Abstract The paper introduces archaeology, and explains that the concept of dating is central to the science of archaeology. Two broad categories of dating, relative and absolute, are introduced, and four major specific types of dating are presented to the reader; stratigraphy, dendrochronology, obsidian hydration dating, and radiocarbon dating. Each of the four methods are discussed in great detail, each with a closing paragraph devoted to the underlying problems with that particular method. For example, the section on stratigraphy begins with a brief history of the method itself, and introduces such concepts as the law of superposition, temporal sequences of data within stratified deposits, context evaluation, and determining age through the relative position of superimposed artifacts. The negatives of stratigraphy are then discussed, and include deformation, overlapping and reverse stratigraphy, and the method is evaluated on the whole. This format is then applied to the other three types of dating discussed. Finally, a concluding paragraph states that although the four types of dating discussed are infinitely valuable to archaeologists all over the world, there are still problems associated with each that need to be accounted for when using them to address the age of fossilized remains and other artifacts.
From the Paper "Archaeology is the study of past human cultures, and archaeologists must uncover and interpret material remains in order to reconstruct past ways of life. To understand the purposes of these remains, Archaeologists have the task of constructing a chronology of prehistory, using various dating methods. ?Without knowing the age of materials, little can be said about the activity that made them part of the site (David L. Webster, Susan Toby Evans & William T. Sanders, 1993: 128).? Dating is defined as the placement in time of events relative to one another or to any established scale of temporal measurement (Jeffrey S. Dean, 1981: 375). Dating methods used by Archaeologist incorporate the scientific method and have the advantages of objectification, application to isolated cultural sequences, and an expanded span of human prehistory for which an absolute chronology can be built (Keith Brannigan, 1974: 100-101). Scientific methods of dating are invaluable for the prehistoric periods and have revolutionized the archaeologists? ideas about the absolute chronology of the prehistoric culture sequence (Brannigan, 1974: 101), yet each of these scientific methods has many difficulties. Dating techniques fall into two categories"relative and absolute"and include the following: seriation, ceramic dating, potassium argon dating, thermoluminescence dating, archaeomagnetic dating, fission track dating, stratigraphy, dendrochronology, obsidian hydration dating, and radiocarbon dating. This paper will discuss the latter four methods, with an emphasis on the shortcomings of each."
Abstract There are many techniques for dating within the field of archaeology, one of these methods is the The K-Ar (Potassium-Argon) method which has been a vast success within the field of geology. This paper examines how it works and what methods are used to glean the date from archaeological artifacts and remains.
From the Paper "It is possible to date rocks with a low potassium content such as basalts in this way. Sadly the dates are not always secure due to the behaviour of the geochemicals of the parent and daughter elements as they are likely to being disturbed by geological events such as weathering or reheating that normally take place during the formation of a rock. Potassium argon dating allows scientists to date volcanic rocks between two billion and 100,000 years old."
