Abstract This paper offers an in-depth examination of the Olmec civilization, which existed in Central America. This paper discusses the lifestyle and way of life. It looks at the architectural methods, as well as the hunting and food preparation manners. It also discusses how Olmecs were influenced by other civilizations of the time and how, in turn, they impacted other cultures.
From the Paper "Long before the Maya, Aztec or Toltec flourished in Central America, there lived the Olmecs, a civilization that has come to continue to intrigue and amaze the world. They were the most prevalent group in Mesoamerica and a highly developed and well organized society with a complex calendar and hieroglyphic writing system. The Olmecs were the mother civilization in Mesoamerica. The Olmec lived around the areas of La Venta in Tabasco, San Lorenza Tenochtitlan, and Laguna de los Cerros in Veracruz during the pre-classic period. They built their cities around a central raised mound. These mounds, used for religious ceremonies, were replaced with pyramid-shaped structures around 900 B.C. The Olmecs used basalt, found in the Tuxtla Mountains, to construct plazas and religious pyramid structures."
Abstract Martin Bernal, author of "Black Athena", argues that numerous cultural achievements that are, by tradition, attributed to the ancient Greeks, are actually found in Africa, specifically, the Egyptians. Mary Lefkowitz, author of ?Not Out of Africa,? argues that Bernal's findings and assumptions are incorrect. This essay examines both works and discusses the opposing views.
From the Paper "Berlinerblau, in his review of Lefkowitz's book, discusses the importance of academic inquiry unencumbered by political conerns (Berlinerblau Pp). Lefkowitz refers to Bernal as an armchair archaeologist. However, she is not the only critic of Bernal's work (Berlinerblau Pp). Robert Palter writes, "Bernal's rhetoric is predicated, unwittingly"on ignorance and superficial understanding? (Berlinerblau Pp)."
Abstract "Segu" by Conde Maryse, an epic novel on the transformation of African life during the early colonial period, touches on many important aspects of African social change. This paper shows how the rise of Islam, fall of localized tribes, and growing emergence of slavery are set against a vivid backdrop of one family's struggle to stay afloat in a rapidly changing world.
From the Paper "The novel Segu portrays a nation caught in turmoil. In its opening pages, one sees the beginnings of the downfall of the Traore family. A seemingly idyllic life is shattered. Dousika's prominent government role is lost unjustly through the jealousy of others, and the stage for the familial decline is set. This decline, of course, is in many ways metaphorical of the decline of the entire kingdom of Segu. During the late 1700's and early 1800's, a variety of historical movements began to draw the African nation into an increasingly precarious situation. Slavery becomes a major factor in everyday life. Perhaps more importantly, however, the rise of Islam began to make inroads into Segu - represented in the novel by the conversion of Tiekoro, the prominent heir to the Traore compound. This influence had already reached much of Africa and had created widespread upheavals and massive change in social structure. Throughout the novel, Segu is portrayed as the last island in a gathering sea of invasive ideology, and the ordeals of the Traore family reveal the complexities and tensions created by the monumental clashes of religion and culture that ensue. Every aspect of Segu life, from government to family to the individual, undergoes radical change as each struggle to adapt to a new way of life."
This paper explains that, since the early 1600s, Hispanic Americans have influenced many aspects of today's American culture such as art, religion and education.
Abstract This paper relates that Hispanic Americans, also known as Latinos, are residents of the United States who can trace their ancestry to countries in the Western Hemisphere where the Spanish language is spoken. The author points out that the Hispanic American community is a mix of subgroups with roots in various countries of Latin America, such as Mexico, Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Panama; many Hispanic Americans are uncomfortable with the term Hispanic American and prefer more specific designations, such as Cuban American or Mexican American, which more clearly reflect their community organization. The paper relates that almost every city in the United States has a Mexican, Cuban or other Spanish oriented restaurants from the corner "Taco Bells" to fancy sit-down cafes; Hispanics American culture has been greatly influenced the clothing industry with brightly colored skirts and dresses and all-cotton Mexican shirts popular style for golf-wear.
From the Paper "The Spaniards found exotic stories to be very real. They also fed on wild rumors, stories from the Indians and survivors of early expeditions, and the fervid imaginations of explorers on the edge of a strange New World. The possibility of finding cities of gold and gilded kings was given credibility by the conquering feats of Hernan Cortes and Francisco Pizarro. In 1521, Cortes looted the fabulous treasure of the Aztec empire in central Mexico. In 1533, Pizarro vanquished the huge Inca Empire of western South America, centered in what today is Peru, exposing rooms full of gold and silver. These stories not only have become wonderful tales but also have found entry in the United States history books."
Abstract This paper examines how female genital mutilation, or female circumcision, is a cultural practice, not a religious practice and how in many cultures, female genital mutilation serves as an initiation rite. It looks at the different kinds of circumcisions in different cultures and contends that no ethical defense can be made for preserving a cultural practice that damages women's health and interferes with their sexuality.
From the Paper "Infibulation, also known as pharaonic circumcision, is the most severe form of female genital mutilation. It consists of a clitoridectomy and the excision of the labia minora as well as the inner layers of the labia majora. The raw edges are then sewn together with catguts or made to adhere to each other by means of thorns. The suturing together is done so that the remaining skin of the labia majora will heal together and form a bridge of scar tissue over the vaginal opening. A small piece of wood or straw is inserted into the vagina to prevent a complete occlusion, and to leave a passage for urine and menstrual flow (Lightfoot-Klein, 1989). "
Abstract This paper discusses obnoxious negative peace and substantive positive peace. These terms are found in a letter by Martin Luther King, Jr. expressing his opinion on direct action. Martin Luther King believed it was important to fight for substantive and positive peace for African Americans and it is important for Americans to continue to fight the battle for substantive and positive peace not only in America but throughout the world.
From the Paper "Injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere" (King 1963). What does this quotation mean? What is the difference obnoxious negative peace and substantive and positive peace? Why are these important today? These were important terms for Martin Luther King and they are important terms today. Martin Luther King believed that whatever affects one person actually affects every one else (King 1963). Many people living during the lifetime of Martin Luther King was willing to close their eyes to the violence and terrorism happening to African Americans. They believed that African Americans were wrong in taking a stand toward wanting their independence. Martin Luther King believed it was important to fight for substantive and positive peace for African Americans and it is important for Americans to continue to fight the battle for substantive and positive peace not only in America but throughout the world."
Abstract This paper presents a report on the book, "Samba", by Alma Guillermoprieto, noting how the author develops a view of Brazilian society through one of the institutions in that society, the samba school, which she reports on first hand by spending a year learning the dance and becoming steeped in the culture of the samba and the carnival when thousands of samba dancers meet.
From the Paper "The samba schools she describes come from the poorest areas of Brazil, the favelas, poor sections of the city of Rio on the hills around the core of that city. In her discussion, she shows how this particular institution relates to the people, to the tradition of carnival, and to ideas of social cohesion and even the form and structure of crime in the country. A little research shows much about Brazil, much that is illustrated in a different way in Guillermoprieto's narrative."
Abstract The paper discusses Turnbull's book "The Forest People" and describes the culture of the BaMbuti. The paper relates that although the BaMbuti lived in a very remote area of Congo's rain forest, by the time Turnbull arrived for a long stay, modern culture had already begun to affect their way of life. The paper explains that the push to settle the BaMbuti in villages as farmers shook their culture to its core, but they managed to preserve their way of life. The paper concludes that the BaMbuti culture survived because it knew to accept what was good and useful, such as crutches for someone with a bad leg and to quietly reject the rest.
From the Paper "Throughout the book, Turnbull describes a trait of the BaMbuti that may have helped them preserve their way of life as well as they had. Although they interacted with other cultures, in particular other non-BaMbuti tribes in the area, they affected the other culture's customs in that other tribe's presence so long as it did not make any important difference to them. But when the issue was an important one, they chose their own customs. Turnbull gives an example of this on p. 43 when telling about a child's death."
Abstract The paper discusses how Khaled Hosseini's novel, "The Kite Runner", focuses on the themes of identity and self-discovery. The paper examines how, throughout the novel, the main character, Amir, struggles to find his true purpose and to forge a personality through good actions. His failure to stand by his friend at a vital moment forms a significant conflict in the novel. The paper analyzes how his attempt to beat his own weak points comes up in his fear of Assef, his uncertainty to enter a war-torn country, and even his carsickness while driving with Farid into Afghanistan. The paper explores how, when Amir discovers that Hassan is his half brother, this is a shock that leads to a deeper understanding of who his father was and how both he and his father had betrayed the people who were loyal to them.
From the Paper "After a while, Amir and his father go to Fremont, California to settle once again. There they have a pretty good life, living in small apartments. Baba works and Amir studies, they go to the Saturday flea market to sell their wares alongside other Afghan immigrants. Baba works at a gas station so that Amir can go to school and later enter college. Amir falls in love with a young Afghan woman named Soraya Taheri, whom he gets to know at the Saturday swap meets. He asks Baba to "go khastegari" for him, to ask Soraya's father for her hand in marriage. Meanwhile, Baba, a lifelong smoker, is diagnosed with cancer. Even though his cancer has spread terribly, he helps Amir perform the traditional Afghan courtship and engagement ceremonies. After Soraya and her father agree to the marriage, the couple skips through the long engagement period because Baba does not have a long time to live. Baba ends up dying a month after they are married. Amir and Soraya move to a new apartment. Amir works on his writing while Soraya studies to become a teacher."
From the Paper "In his 1971 work, The Population Bomb, Dr. Paul Ehrlich delineates the gravity of the overpopulation problem. Dr. Ehrlich asserts that overpopulation is a serious and immediate concern. Dr. Ehrlich calls for immediate and drastic measures to reduce the population growth rate. In his efficacious and enlightening work, Dr. Ehrlich not only describes the nature and the magnitude of the population problem, but he also explains the pragmatic consequences of failing to adopt population control measures, citing several doomsday prophecies. Dr. Ehrlich further explains possible solutions for these pressing concerns, and encourages the citizen to participate, in various capacities, in the race to halt Armageddon. "
Examines Michael Coe's book "The Maya" which pulls together the available data from many different fields of study to produce a comprehensive survey that sheds new light on the beginnings and eventual decline of the ancient Mayan civilization.
2,160 words (approx. 8.6 pages), 3 sources, 1999, $ 67.95
From the Paper "By using new and updated material from the archaeological field, combined with the recent studies done in the field of linguistics, Coe has been able to create a plausible 'history' of the Maya people, while at the same time creating a new model that portrays a very complex social and economic system not believed to have existed in earlier research. Coe's revised edition also dispels the notion that the complex centers were primarily used for religious or priestly functions. Coe instead sees these centers as also being the hub for politics, trade, and social functions. Added to this history are the artistic forms expressed in the Maya Murals, burial sites, architecture, ceramics, clothing and dated monumnts, all of which gives insight as well as documentation to the lives and movements of the humans that inhabited the many areas of Mesoamerica as early as eleven to fourteen thousand years ago. By tracing the various art forms displayed on these archaeological items along with the decipherable hieroglyphic writings, Coe has been able to offer a realistic progression of the Maya civilization through its Pre-Classic, Classic, and Post-Classic eras. Included in this progression is the outside influences of different languages and styles of artistic expression, whether these influences came through the process of trade, exchange, or war. But before Coe examines these three stages of Maya development, he first explores the possible human lifestyle prior to these stages, thus setting the stage for the development of the obvious and intricate architecture that is found in Mesoamerica today."
An application of Jung's various archetypes to the personality of Lt. John Dunbar in the film "Dances With Wolves", in order to follow him on his journey of individuation.
2,325 words (approx. 9.3 pages), 6 sources, 1999, $ 71.95
From the Paper "The opening Civil War battlefield scene, in this movie, gives the first insight into one of Dunbar's personality Archetypes. He has been so severely, rounded, facing possible amputation of his foot, that he wants to die. Dunbar finds himself in a desperate situation that he has little control over causing him to experience feelings of misery and impotence. With great agony, he finds his way back to the front lines and makes a suicidal ride in front of the Confederate soldiers. "
Abstract A look at Campbell's concept that one can find clues about the human psyche from human created mythology that forms the core of the many different religious traditions found both historically and today in the twentieth century.
From the Paper "As present-day humans we can trace the physical growth of the human species by examining "man the hunter", "man the toolmaker", 'man the city builder, and so on. These are the most often used explanations to trace the path of the human species, but according to Campbell, these aspects are only one-half of the human life cycle. The other half and more important part of the development of the human species lies in the human psyche. It is within the human psyche that the spiritual growth and the spiritual experience of life resides and functions. The clues to this part of the development of the human species can be found in the human created mythology that forms the core of the many different religious traditions found both historically and today in the twentieth century. "
A look at the book as a triumph of the human spirit, as well as a personal narration that offers an insider's view of the social, political, economic, religious, and cultural life of an entire group of people.
1,910 words (approx. 7.6 pages), 5 sources, 1999, $ 60.95
From the Paper ?I, Rigoberta Menchu: An Indian Woman in Guatemala" is a human story. In 1982, when this story was recorded, Rigoberta was only twentythree years old and had already witnessed and experienced a lifetime of unbelievable physical, psychological, and spiritual persecution. Her story is a testament to the strength and endurance of the human spirit under the most de-humanizing conditions imaginable. At the same time, this personal narration offers an insiders view of the social, political, economic, religious, and cultural life of an entire group of people. Through Rigoberta, a contemporary Maya community comes alive bringing with it the struggles that began with the Spanish Conquest and continue in the Guatemala of the twentieth century. "
