Abstract This paper summarizes the theories of these thinkers on the role of the individual and his/her relationship to the community. In conclusion, the author states that the thinking of Victor Turner is the most accurate and convincing.
From the Paper "Two thinkers -- Max Weber and Emile Durkheim -- were late modernist thinkers who developed theories about the relation of the individual to society. Their theories were appropriate to the industrial societies in which they lived. With the end of World War Two and the rise of the post-modern period, however, different ways of conceiving of the individual and society arose that sought to break with modernist thinking, including the thought of Clifford Geertz and Victor Turner."
Tags: anthropology, emile, max, sociology, society, authority, changing, order, religious
Abstract This paper looks at the implications, for social anthropology, of discourses on knowledge and power by focusing on Foucault's ideas and by analyzing several ethnographic studies.
From the Paper "Social science knowledge informs the way in which people interpret their experiences, and can be empowering, as in the case of political and feminist discourses. However, knowledge, employed as discourse, can also be employed in ways that disempower, and this is the focus of much of Foucault's work. The implication for academic work is that social science knowledge can serve to either empower or disempower its subjects, sometimes both, and in all cases it has influence over its subjects and its audience, by virtue of being itself a discourse, albeit a scientific one."
This paper discusses the religion and society of the earliest known human civilization, Mesopotamia, which is located in the region between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in present-day Iraq.
Abstract This paper explains that Mesopotamia, named "land between two rivers" by the Greeks, is the generic name for many different civilizations that existed in this area over a long period, but were relatively similar in their cultures, religions, and societies. The oldest is the Sumerian, followed by Akkadian, Babylonian, and the Assyrian civilizations. The author points out that the importance of religion in the lives of the ancient Mesopotamian people was overwhelming and affected all aspects of their lives because, in the absence of other fields of intellectual discourse that are available to the modern man, only religion could provide the Mesopotamians an explanation of the forces that governed their existence. The paper relates that, although women's position in the society varied between city-states and changed over time, the Mesopotamian society basically was highly patriarchal, with the wife's position in the household firmly below that of her husband.
Table of Contents
Religion
Importance
Sources of Information
Sumerian Beliefs
Developmental Stages of the Mesopotamian Religion
Mesopotamian Religion
Temples
Mesopotamian Society
Caste System
A Patriarchal Society
From the Paper "The characteristics of the Mesopotamian society and the way in which developed were largely determined by the geography of the region. The rich fertile soil of the area, which was the result of the rich silt and water provided by the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, attracted settlers to Mesopotamia. The rich land meant the creation of food surpluses, which allowed some settlers to move away from agriculture and into trade. It also resulted in the growth of the population that, in turn, gave rise to the process of urbanization. Most of the land was owned by temples and the king, which was "leased" out to workers who were provided with the land and tools in return for part of the profit."
Abstract This paper argues that Saudi Arabia should suffer economic and political sanctions due to its violation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The paper focuses on Saudi Arabia's treatment of women and cites examples of how the government of Saudi Arabia routinely abuses the rights of Saudi Arabian women. The paper also describes the abuse and mistreatment of foreign women and explains why Saudi Arabia has been allowed to continue in this manner and talks about the UN responsibility in addressing the problem and holding Saudi Arabia accountable. A complete outline of the paper is included.
From the Paper "Saudi Arabia holds an important position in the Arab, Muslim and international communities. Among the Arab countries, it holds an important position because of its economic strength, its position as the center of Islam and its role as the leader of the Arab Gulf countries. In the Muslim World, it is the most important nation because it is identified with Islam and is the home of the Islamic pilgrimage. Within the international community, Saudi Arabia's incredible oil wealth has made it an important country on whom many, including the United States, are dependant for their energy needs and requirements. This unique position of religious, regional and economic power has protected Saudi Arabia and Saudi Arabians from facing the consequences of human rights abuse. The United Nations, which David P. Forsythe defines in "The United Nations and Human Rights, 1845-1985," as the international protector of human rights in the world, has mainly ignored Saudi Arabia's violation of human rights laws because of its international and regional economic, political and religious influence and power. Consequently, Saudi Arabia, defined by Tom Lantos in "Discrimination Against Women and the Roots of Global Terrorism," as a "gender apartheid" state, has continued to abuse the rights of both Saudi Arabian and foreign female workers (7). Not only that, but Saudi Arabia can further be defined as a racist state which denies all minority groups, including Saudi and foreign ones, their basic human rights. The Shiite Saudi Arabians are not treated as equal to the Sunni majority and live on the borders of the country, fearing prosecution (Peretz). The foreign Christian community, as reported by the US State Department's Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2002, is not allowed to practice its faith and, if members of it do, the punishment is execution. As for Saudi females, they are denied identity as human beings, referred to even by members of the Saudi Royal Family UBOs, or "Unidentified Black Objects" (Peretz). Lastly, foreign female workers are raped, beaten, overworked, denied their wages and locked in houses as prisoners. Despite the fact that these issues of abuse have received great attention by human rights organizations and the media, the United Nations and the international community has not taken action against Saudi Arabia, forcing it to abide by Islamic human rights or international human rights. Saudi Arabia should suffer economic and political sanctions due to its violation of the Universal Declaration of human rights and the Islamic human rights, seen in its oppression and abuse of Saudi women and foreign minority groups, including their imprisonment in the home and illegal executions."
Abstract This report looks at existing literature portrayals of female circumcision in Africa. The findings of this report concern the ethical, moral, and medical rationalizing that prompt a bias in the existing literature against the practice of female circumcision from a number of different perspectives.
From the Paper "When discussing the subject of female circumcision in Africa, one must also be familiar with concepts and theories regarding culture. From one point of view, often called the cultural relativism point of view, cultures are viewed as being understood by their participants, and not necessarily by those outside of the specific cultural milieu, in this case
of traditional African societies. This point of view does not presuppose universal ethics from a perspective of influence on or interaction with the culture from policy directives. These policy directives can be seen in the case of female circumcision in Africa as the intervention of organizations, often worldwide organizations, which seek to delimit the cultural process of female circumcision from a predominantly western
cultural view, which finds the process abhorrent from an ethical and rights-based perspective. The effectiveness of this cultural imposition, however, is limited to the cultural relativist."
Abstract This paper discusses the history of Jewish immigration from 1654 until today. In addition, it discusses the struggles faced by the Jews when they came to America during the various waves of immigration. The paper also discusses cultural assimilation. Other issues discussed are anti-semitism, conformity to American traditions, and intermarriage.
From the Paper "The media and the public schools made it easy for them to pick up the English language and American values, and they quickly became the rope in a tug of war between their parents and a dominating American culture (Feagin 123). Many second-generation Jewish women were pressured by society to reject their mothers' image of "poverty and strong-woman reality" and instead assume the more lady-like, devoted-housewife qualities of that time (Feagin 124)." The most significant indicator of cultural assimilation among the Jewish Americans is the gradual movement away from the Orthodox branch of Judaism, encompassing traditional and rigid forms of worship and belief, to the conservative and reform branches, each reflecting more Americanized practices and less strict observances."
Abstract This paper explains that clothing is rarely recognized as a political force; yet fashion and design may be one of the most internationally regarded forms of trade, communication, and influence among countries worldwide. The author points out that the Orient has been a wellspring of fashion influence for both the Eastern and Western world since ancient times; the Edo period in Japan was the beginning of several Japanese styles that remain popularized by Western culture fashions for centuries, including the "Kamishimo," worn by both males and females of the Samurai warrior class during special occasions featured stiff shoulder garments that crossed the shoulders and chest, elements vital to the Samurai image held by Hollywood and other popular culture creations in the West today. The paper relates that today very young Japanese girls, as seen in exported Japanese movies, manga comic books, and anime television, are setting global fashion trends, including miniskirts, short pants flared out at the bottom, and loose, baggy socks deliberately allowed to lap over the tops of their shoes.
From the Paper "Fashion evolves as quickly as any other fast-paced element of society, never becoming stagnant. Some people are critical of the movement and growth of the industry, claiming it encourages people to become materialistic, rushing at every opportunity to spend more and more money on unnecessary items. However, this change and growth is precisely what makes fashion a true form of human expression. Diversity, experimentation, expression, and metamorphosis are what define human culture and fashion culture. As cultures touch, fashions exchange and spread. The in-look for the young rebels is eventually passed on to the older generations. The styles of one region are sent to another. "Young people, enjoy the diversity that changing fashion can apparently provide, seeing the constant change as a way to satisfy their desire to experience 'new' and 'interesting' things. Note too though that fashion can change to enforce uniformity, as in the case where so-called Mao suits became the national uniform of Mainland China." "
Abstract This paper presents a commodity chain analysis by tracing the production, distribution, and consumption of an "Abercrombie & Fitch" t-shirt. The paper examines the apparel, textile, and footwear industries from a local and global point of view, with a focus on the work force of these manufacturing industries.
From the Paper "In general, the apparel industry is perhaps the most global of all manufacturing industries. The apparel, textile and footwear industries employ the largest workforce of any manufacturing industry in the world. At the very bottom of the chain are the garment workers, where all of the clothing production commences. Many of the workers are young women and teenagers who work in garment sweatshops producing for American retailers. About 80 percent of apparel workers producing clothing for U.S. retailers are working under conditions that violate local and international labor law. In the state of California alone there are over 140,000 garment workers who are mostly women, Latina and Asian immigrants that work 10-12 hour days, poverty wages, no paid overtime, physical, verbal and sexual abuse, dangerous and unsanitary working conditions, and suppression of the right to organize unions to change these conditions."
Abstract Body modification, the act of altering the body, either temporarily or permanently, is a practice that has existed for centuries. This paper examines two forms of body modification: tattooing, including scarification; and body piercing. It explores them in historical, psychological, and sociological frameworks.
From the Paper "The word "tattoo" is believed to be derived from a Tahitian word meaning "to mark." The act of tattooing itself is believed to be over ten thousand years old, and it has had a multitude of uses throughout history. Tattoos play an important role in tribal and cultural rituals. In fact, ancient Greeks used them as part of a sophisticated espionage system. In addition, in early times Romans used tattoos to mark criminals and slaves so that they would clearly stand out. In Borneo, women would have symbols of special skills or talents tattooed on their forearms, thus alerting potential marriage partners of their marketability."
This paper compares the flood creation stories in Gilgamesh and in the Book of Genesis in the Bible, which have caused many discussions among scholars involved with ancient civilizations.
Abstract This paper explains that, although native to different civilizations, Noah to the Hebrews and Utnapishtim to the Babylonians, these two stories are very similar to each other, with only specific details being different. he author points out that these similarities have brought some people to believe that one of the stories developed from a copy of the other story. The paper states that these stories tell of the power of the all-powerful God or god of the people and how the people are afraid to displease their divine power.
From the Paper "There are many similarities between the two flood stories. In both stories, the divine are annoyed with humanity. In the book of Genesis, God notices man has become sinful and wicked in their actions and thoughts. In Gilgamesh, the divine assembly find humankind too numerous and noisy. In an effort to rid the earth of humankind, both stories tell of a flood that will destroy everything including animals.
However, in each story, a righteous man finds favor with God and has his life spared. In the book of Genesis, God finds favor with Noah and warns him of his plans to destroy the world. In Gilgamesh, Ea does not agree with Enlil and his plans to flood the earth so he warns Utnapishtim, through a dream, of Enlil's plan. After finding out about the flood, Noah and Utnapishtim both build arks using the specifications provided to them and bring in every living creature into the ark."
Abstract This paper shows how, in his "Confessions", Augustine reflects back on his life, particularly his memories of Monica, his mother and Adeodatus, his son, and interprets their meanings as God working through daily intervention to change the way Augustine thinks and feels.
From the Paper "The Confessions is St. Augustine's reflection back on his life, and his search for God during it. He chronicles his experiences from birth until the present time, and explains the deeper meaning that he now sees in each one. Through his reflection, his is able to deeper understand the ways in which God works, and is able to unite with God in spirit. It is through this deeper understanding that in the time he was searching for God in earthly ideas and objects, God was within him all along. Augustine did not find God while searching for him, God revealed himself to Augustine through Augustine's personal history and experience."
Tags: anthropology, augustine, confessions, god, religious
This paper examines the numerous cultural attributes of the Mayan civilization while focusing on the reasons for its eventual collapse and disappearance.
Abstract This paper analyzes the disappearance of the Mayan civilization while focusing on the various theories surrounding its eventual collapse. The writer of this brief yet concise paper details the history of the Mayan culture which emerged in 2000 BC. The Mayan civilization gave birth to numerous cultural progresses such as the establishment of a writing system, an organized political council as well as the introduction of organized religion. This paper examines the theories surrounding the dispersal of the Mayan civilization, when at around 800 AD it was purported to have suddenly collapsed. There have been numerous arguments based on archaeological and anthropological evidence that attempted to explain the collapse of this particular civilization. This paper focuses on several theories which may explain the disappearance of the Mayan people which include climatic changes as well as socio-cultural collapse through the population's expansion.
From the Paper "The theory that argued that a climatic collapse led to the disappearance of the Mayan civilization was based from scientific findings that were caused by a severe drought. As reported by History Today, "[d]rilling samples from the Cariaco Basin off the Venezuelan Coast show there were intensely dry periods between AD 810 and AD 910..." From this finding, it was found that because there had been scarce supply of the people's basic needs, such as water and food supply, Mayan society disappeared, supposedly due to deaths caused by these series of drought. A more specific version of this theory was presented in Kerr's journal article on the scientific evidence pointing at climate changes as the catalyst towards the disappearance of the civilization."
This paper analyzes the problems and misunderstandings that arise due to ethnocentric views of other cultures while also examining cultural relativity, a theoretical stance which opposes that of ethnocentrism.
Abstract The writer of this paper defines the term ethnocentrism as a means to make assumptions or judgments about other cultures from one's own point of view. This paper details the various problems that an ethnocentric view presents when dealing with different cultures. The writer describes one particular example relating to the Hopi Indians. The ethnocentric view was prevalent that the language of the Hopi Indians was inferior to English as it did not have any words for time. This led to the assumption that the Hopi Indians were primitive and less advanced as a civilization, which resulted in the treatment of the Indians on the basis of an assumed inferiority. This paper also examines more serious examples of ethnocentrism, which can be seen in Africa, in which ethnic assumptions of inferiority or superiority led to the horrific genocide in Rwanda. The writer of this paper discusses the ethnocentric views that were prevalent in Nazi Germany. This paper also examines cultural relativity, which is a theoretical stance in direct opposition to that of ethnocentrism. This view emphasizes that cultures are a product of different historical experiences and that these differences should be respected.
From the Paper "Examples of the problems and misunderstandings that ethnocentric attitudes can engender are numerous in recent history. For example, the view was prevalent that the language of the Hopi Indians was inferior to English as it did not have any tenses or words for time. This led to the assumption that the Hopi Indians were somewhat primitive and less advanced as a civilization. Subsequently, this led to the treatment of the Indians on the basis of an assumed inferiority. Later the cultural assumption that the Hopi did not have words for time was proven to be incorrect. Another example refers to the differences in perception, which are seen from an ethnocentric point of view as a sign of inferiority. An example is the different perceptions of color by the Intuit Indians."
Tags: culture, conflict, war, nazi, rwanda, africa, perception, theory
Abstract The debate over what determines who we are, whether it is nature (heredity) or nurture (our surroundings) is taking a new shape. For years there has been a battle over whether nature or nurture is responsible for our actions. This paper discusses the possibility that both interact to form who we are and that nature and nurture are parallel influences rather than determinants.
From the Paper "There are many public outcries against Darwin's theory of "humans developing from the earlier animal species." Animal behaviors are either innate or learned. In TIME magazine, it was mentioned, "This issue underlies not only philosophical debates over free will and determinism but also the current trend toward our becoming a no-fault no-risk culture." (TIME, 1994) Identifying nature vs. nurture in terms of determinism vs. free will is most likely mistaken when one believes the discourse to which enculturation patterns the mind, selves and behavior. Throughout society it seems as though people can go around blaming their genes on their actions and/or mistakes. By proving that it's the genes to blame, it is giving people an excuse for their actions."
Abstract This paper discusses the skeletal changes reflected in the change from arboreal to terrestrial locomotion. The author examines the evolution of primates through lemuroides, tarsiers, monkeys, apes to humans. The paper defines the structure that differentiates humans.
From the Paper "Primates have evolved over a period of millions of years and the ultimate in evolution is the human. Over the course of time, different primates evolved different body structures, which suited their time and their lifestyle and the ecosystem into which they fit. The prosimians and the early primates were arboreal, which over time gradually descended from the trees and developed an upright stance. This was accompanied by skeletal changes to accommodate the postural changes. Primates are distinguished from other mammals by nine general features: A generalized limb ..."
