Abstract This paper discusses the ruler of Egypt known as Akhenaten. It describes his reign as Pharaoh of the Sun and how he changed Egyptian culture. The paper illustrates the history of Akhenaten's rise to power and his duration as pharaoh (including the artistic aspects and new architectural designs). It then argues that Akhenaten was not a heretic, as it has been suggested.
Table of Contents:
Background & Further Introduction
Religion of Light; Evidence to the Contrary
Art & Innovation: Evidence of Akhenaten as a Progressive Pharaoh
History
Akhenaten as Heretic
Revolution in Architecture
Controversy
Politics
After Effects
Akhenaten Conclusion
From the Paper "Akhenaten was an icon figure as can be seen in the surviving art. He was a family man as is proof from the hieroglyphics of him and Nefertiti playing with their children and mourning over their dead daughter by her bedside. In these representations alone historians can witness the saintly nature of Akhenaten and know that the heretic rumors are mere lies presented by Amun priests who wanted to ensure that monotheism did not remain a strong religion in Egypt. Akhenaten created a civilization based by living in truth. There is no true testimony to Akhenaten being a heretic or a madman, in the representations that exist of him he is the opposite of this; he was a revolutionary, a pharaoh, a family man whose reign left a lasting artistic impression."
Abstract This paper reviews and discusses Redford's controversial theme presented in his book, "Akhenaten - The Heretic King". Redford's theme contends that Akhenaten was not the enlightened pharaoh historians have made him out to be. The paper points out how Redford, through research and evidence from history, successfully argues that Akhenaten was actually a ruthless tyrant who possessed poor administrative skills and completely lacked a sincere desire to transform the country. The paper further notes Redford's position that Akhenaten did not care about his public and was not exactly a shrewd soldier, and this is what led to his ultimate downfall. Some of the criticisms aimed at Redford's book are mentioned, but the paper concludes by stating that the book is a worthwhile read.
From the Paper "The first few chapters of the book deal with the background of Akhenaten's reign, his family history and how it ascended the throne. The author tells us about Akhenaten's father and the family in which the heretic king was born. This section doesn?t present anything controversial, debatable or shocking. However with Akhenaten's ascension to the throne, the book takes an interesting turn as author makes several insightful and very original observations regarding this period. A large part of this book is devoted to Akhenaten's change of religion and his personal religious beliefs, which bring us to the Aten controversy."
Abstract This paper examines the life of King Akhenaten who came to power in c.1352 B.C.E. and ruled Egypt for seventeen years. Akhenaten was a firm believer in "maat" or divine truth and centered his religion around this. His divine truth policy changed art and culture in Egypt. This paper considers these changes, in particular the effect on art at the time by reviewing certain works of art from that time period.
From the Paper "Akhenaten and His Family portrays Akhenaten and Nefertiti sitting casually on their thrones playing with their three daughters. The sun disk Aten reaches down his beams; the beams end in hands that tough the royal's, some hands holding Ankh?s. The scarves and clothing they wear seems to drape and flow from their bodies. The position that the family sits in is unusually casual for Egyptian art, as compared with works such as Menkaure and His Wife, Queen Khamereenebty ca.2515 B.C.E., which was made of slate and composed of tight, structured stance. Nefertiti's throne, with lotus and papyrus blossoms at the base, suggests a united upper and lower Egypt. "
Tags: art, aten, aton, god, history, mythology, nefertiti, religion, sun
Abstract This essay examines the religious reforms implemented throughout King Akhenaten's reign of Ancient Egypt often termed the Amarna Period (c. 1360 ? 1343 B.C.). It investigates how these reforms differed from the traditional religion that was practised in Ancient Egypt at the time as well as the rationale and motives behind them. It examines the impact of these reforms and why, in the end, they were only temporary in nature, not lasting beyond Akhenaten's reign.
From the Paper "As discussed, there were numerous religious reforms put forward by Akhenaten during his reign. However not all were successful. Indeed there were many problems with the changes Akhenaten implemented. His reforms were introduced with such force that they met with strong resistance. Despite Akhenaten's desire for there to be one god, the Aten, and his attempts to remove all other deities, the Egyptian people continued to worship the traditional gods (Ashcroft 2003, Stange 2000). Akhenaten's worship of the Aten was not as shared or supported by the Egyptian people as the Aten, as sole god, did not satisfy all of the Egyptian's religious requirements. R. David suggests the reason behind this is that "the Aten had no moral philosophy or attractive mythology which could inspire the general worshipper" (David 1993:157)."
Abstract The paper gives a very real and accurate description life of Akhenaten. From his seemingly amazing, though heretical, accession to the throne of Egypt, to the establishment of his new city Akhentaten near Tel El Amarna. The paper fully describes the life of Akhenaten, his achievements, the changes he made to the Empire as well as his downfall from the Egyptian throne. All information and hypotheses are accurately justified with prime, confident primary and secondary sources and critically analysed to achieve a great satisfaction of critical use of sources.
From the Paper "Akhenaten declared to all Egypt that he was son of Aten and proposed that he was Aten is human form (an incarnation), and to worship Aten, he should be worshiped as a god. Roebuck provides evidence of how Akhenaten considered himself a god, Roebuck (1966) explains ?The kings shared a divinity of Aten and spoke of himself as Aten's son and co-regent, but the other gods of Egypt were laid aside.? Evidence here sates that Akhenaten saw himself as son of Aten. Throughout upper and lower Egypt, Akhenaten was depicted as a godly figure, portrayed larger than any other person, a clear sign in Egyptian culture and art, that he was more important than any other person and just as important as a god. Bradley (1999) sates "The size and position of the image of the king in scenes was an affirmation of the king's divinity, the king became the focus of worship" The Pharaoh's size and position in art was very important. Before Akhenaten kings were always shown was larger than any other, but not larger than that of a god. This source clearly explains that fact that Akhenaten was just as large as a god, so therefore considered himself a god."
Tags: amarna, amenhotep, aten, delta, disk, egypt, nile, sun, tel
Abstract This paper presents an overview of the Egyptian King/Pharaoh called Akhenaten. The paper begins with a brief explanation of his major achievements, since he was known as a revolutionary king. The writer also mentions that his physical appearance was somewhat different and that perhaps led to his unique personality.
Contents
Introduction
Thesis/Structure of Sources
Analysis of Materials/Arguments
Synopsis of Theories
Additional Themes
From the Paper "Akhenaten is often not credited as being one of the great pharaoh?s, his name is not as well known as that of the boy king, Tutankhamen. However, he should be credited with being a revolutionary. The former pharaoh is most well noted as being a religious zealot and instigator of change, if only temporary change, within the country of Egypt. Many historians have noted or credited Akhenaten with single handedly being responsible for initiating a religious revolution in Egypt. Though his efforts have been defined as the first true attempt at establishing a monotheistic state in a polytheistic society, his efforts were not permanent. The reasoning behind his decisions to change Egypt's religion is still questioned however to this day. The most notable theme and historical resources suggest that Akhenaten was a self absorbed individual who revolutionized religion in Egypt during his reign to benefit his own idealisms and truisms."
An analysis of the life of Amenophis IV, also known as Akhenaten, who lived during the Ancient Egyptian period and was the first monotheist in recorded history.
Abstract This paper discusses how Akhenaten must always be remembered as the first true monotheist in world history. It looks at how his actions, viewed as heretical by his contemporaries, triggered an entire series of world-altering events that would eventually change the very structure and purpose of many cultures throughout the world in the centuries to come. An overview of the history and society during his life is provided in the paper.
From the Paper "These actions by Akhenaten, which to the ordinary Egyptian citizen might have been viewed as psychotic or due to a fanatic under some kind of sudden conversion, truly had the potential to establish the first world empire, for the growth of power fostered by the imperialist pharaohs before Akhenaten had enlarged the religious significance of the sun god Amen, the main god of all Egyptians. Even before Egypt had become the main force in the Mediterranean world, Tuthmose I maintained that his kingdom extended as far as ?the circuit of the sun,? and the military pharaoh, Tuthmose III, said of this god ?He seeth the whole earth hourly.? 4 Thus, Akhenaten was exploiting forces that had already gathered when he declared that the imperialized god of the sun was the only god in the universe and proscribed any rival or idol as blasphemous. He then appropriated to himself the new and universal god, making him the son, prophet and even the bearer of Aton's soul."
Abstract In this article, the writer discusses that the relationship between the arts and religion in Egypt was such that artists and architects were part of the bureaucracy. As employees of the state; their work became an expression of the permanency of both the state and the gods. In this essay the writer restricts considerations to relief art in both temples and tombs together with a brief discussion of architecture. The writer briefly elaborates on the function of art in Egyptian society and outlines traditional representations of Pharaoh. From here, the writer discusses the reasons why, during the Amarna period, artistic style, form and composition underwent a radical change. The writer then briefly considers the role architecture played in validating Akhenaten's unique religious role and demonstrates how art became an even more potent propagandistic weapon of state, used by Akhenaten to sell the validity of his special relationship with the god Aten to his people. This paper includes two small figures illustrating art of the time.
From the Paper "The change in style that was adopted by artists in the Amarna period cannot be explained, in isolation, simply by the fact that arts' religious basis had been thoroughly overturned. What does explain this change though is the nature of the monotheistic deity that was adopted, the Aten, represented as rays of sunlight emanating from the disk of the sun represented truth and reality. Ancients looking at the sun would, just as we would today, be temporarily blinded by its power, motivating the interpretation of the Aten as representative of these values. Thus, given the premise that the king was the sole mortal (along with his family) capable of worshipping this god, any representation of Pharaoh must in and of itself be portrayed accurately without taking liberties to disguise frailty or weakness. Further to this, Pharaoh was no longer a god-king in this world, for certain he held a unique spiritual relationship with the singular deity but this does not afford him god-status, similarly removing the need for stylisation and a formulaic representation."
Abstract This paper analyzes the socio-economical culture of ancient Egypt through the poem, "The Great Hymn" by Akhenaten. The paper describes the poem's psychological manipulation of the Egyptians through superstition. It examines their religious the beliefs and the rule of the Pharaoh.
From the Paper "Ancient Egyptian culture has fascinated the world with its mysteries and secrets that seem unreachable. From the pyramids to the scattered literature, researchers are struggling to uncover the secrets that have long been buried with the lost power of the Pharaohs. Yet, at times with a little insight the culture of the Egyptians becomes much easier to understand than would seem possible. While archaeologists are fascinated with the pyramids it is the sociologists that have realized that if understood it is the literature of the ancient Egyptians that holds the key to the mystery of the past. Consider just one Pharaoh and his contribution to the cultural literature of his times. Through an analysis of just one piece of poetry we can come to an understanding of the socio-economical culture of his times and the values, which the society upheld in its power."
Tags: egypt, pharoh, values, superstition, culture, society, psychological, god, ancient
Abstract This paper discusses the life of King Akhenaten (who eventually changed his name to Amenhotep) who came to power in c.1352 B.C.E. and ruled for seventeen years. It evaluates the several transformations in art, politics, culture and religion he made during his short reign such as the dismissal of Egyptian polytheism in favor of the worship of a single god. There is also a review of the royal art works during his reign which become known as the Amarna art period.
From the Paper "Amenhotep was mostly well remembered for his radical transformations. Plenty of people thought he was a shame to Egypt, to others he was a Christ-like visionary. In honor of the sun disk Aten, Amenhotep changed his name to Akhenaten. He also changed the format for Egyptian religion from several gods to a monotheistic religion involving Aten. Some believe his mother, Tiy, helped bring this change forth. Nefertiti may have also fueled his religious appetite. It is also believed that Akhenaten was a mentor of the biblical figure Moses. Akhenaten was a firm believer in maat or divine truth and centered his religion around this."
Compares the religious positions/doctrines/innovations of Pharaoh Akhenaten of the 18th Egyptian dynasty, with those of the Protestant reformer, Martin Luther.
Abstract The introductory paragraph offers a general background of the terms reformation and reformer. A list of several reformers and their reformations are also listed to give the reader a general background of the research paper as it relates to Martin Luther and Pharaoh Akhenaton. The second paragraph explores the position/doctrines/innovation of Pharaoh Akhenaton. Akhenaton is best known as one of the first rulers during his era to engage in monotheism, the act of acknowledging one God. The third paragraph explores the position/doctrines/innovations of one of the most prevalent reformers to ever live, Martin Luther. Numerous historians rightly regard Martin Luther as the founder of the sixteenth century Protestant Reformation. In the concluding body, the writer presents similarities and differences between Martin Luther and Pharaoh Akhenaton. Subsequently, it concludes the entire research paper with an illustrative conversation between Martin Luther and Pharaoh Akhenaton about their similarities.
From the Paper "There have been several reformers in history. Akhenaton, Pharaoh of the 18th Egyptian Dynasty began a reformation concerning his spiritual and religious beliefs. In the biblical period John the Baptist and Jesus led reformations to change the hearts of men. Most prevalent among reformers is Martin Luther; a persistent reformer who revolutionized the Christian church concerning its beliefs and rituals. Lastly, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., one of the greatest reformers in American history, led a reformation to increase equality for all mankind. Rebellion against tradition and orthodox perspectives inspired these great reformers to bring about change."
Examines creation, history, geography, sociopolitical and economic factors, land use, design and urbanism theories related to this royal city built in the mid-14th Century B.C.
4,050 words (approx. 16.2 pages), 11 sources, 1999, $ 135.95
Abstract "The site of the city of Akhenaten, the only virtually complete ancient town to have survived from ancient Egypt, lies 160 miles south of Cairo, midway between the modern towns of Minya and Asyut (Weigall 92).
From the Paper "The site of the city of Akhenaten, the only virtually complete ancient town to have survived from ancient Egypt, lies 160 miles south of Cairo, midway between the modern towns of Minya and Asyut (Weigall 92). It is only at el-Amarna that a comprehensive range of official and residential buildings have been preserved, comprising the essential elements of an Egyptian royal city of the mid-fourteenth century BCE. This paper will look at how urbanism theories apply to the city of Amarna.
INTRODUCTION
The city of Amarna (or "Horizon of the Sun Disk") is located on the eastern side of the Nile in Middle Egypt, half way between Cairo and Luxor. The ancient city is formed by a bay of cliffs to the east and the Nile to the west, taking the shape of an archer's bow, with the Nile as the string and the city couched ..."
This paper analyzes a fragment of ancient Egyptian portrayal of king (14th Cent. B.C.) looking at style, deformities, humanism, perspective; prevailing social, political & spiritual conditions of his kingdom.
2,250 words (approx. 9 pages), 3 sources, 1986, $ 79.95
From the Paper " The purpose of this research is to discuss a fragment of a statue of Akhenaten.
What has remained of this portrait is the nose and the mouth. The work is from Tell el Amarna and is dated from 1379 to 1362 B.C. The fragment is of limestone and is probably one of the thirty statues that the king, also known as Amenhotep IV, built for the Aten temple at Karnak, or it was at least carved at about the same time (Lloyd 177).
Statues which are more complete works of this type exist and all have the same thick, protruding lips and round noses. These statues give us a better idea of what the pharaoh looked like. He had an elongated, gaunt face. His limbs were slender but his stomach and hips were wide. Portraits of him were almost caricatures because of the expressionistic exaggeration of form(...)"
Abstract This research examines elements of Egyptian culture that seem closer to magic than to religion as they are commonly understood. The research sets forth the context in which concepts of magic and religion achieve resonance in ancient Egypt and then discusses specific examples from Egyptian religious literature and thought that show how the Egyptians distinguished between religion and magic, compared to other monotheists. Finally, it illustrates how magic fits into the religious environment of the culture.
From the Paper "Differentiating between religion and magic in ancient culture has proved problematic for western commentators to the degree definitions of the terms are approached from the Western but not from a subject other culture's point of view. The tendency to bring Western religious classifications to the project of identifying the attributes of Egyptian religion does not seem to accomplish a great deal analytically. In the worst instances of this type, Ritner says, misinterpretation and mistranslation of some hieroglyphic inscriptions have resulted. Specifically, inscriptions that supposedly distinguished between magic and religion (cult) have proved to be inaccurate. Walker agrees, defining magic not as an expression of evil but as "the art which attempts to influence a course of events by controlling nature of supernatural powers." The good-evil opposition of religion and magic that is typical of and fundamental to Western analysis proves not to be sufficient to the task of understanding the character of religion and the role of magic in religion for Egyptian antiquity."
Abstract This research provides six specific examples of how the gods were believed to communicate with humanity in ancient Egypt. The research describes ways in which divine-to-human acts of communication were thought to take place in various periods of Egyptian civilization and the content of the patterns of belief. It discusses how perceptions and beliefs appear to have altered over the course of the culture's several-thousand-year tenure, before it was absorbed by Rome in the first century BC. Egypt's pharaonic period, which begins with the Old Kingdom (about 3200 BC), ends in 525 BC, which coincides with the emergence of Greek influence and the infancy of Rome. The paper shows that it is a truism that Greeks and Romans alike considered Egypt to be an ancient civilization.
From the Paper "What began in the Old Kingdom as a perception of the underworld as a place of wondrous information and potentiality was transformed by the time of the New Kingdom into a perception of the underworld as almost instrumental in the project of transfiguration of human experience into divine experience. As Hornung says, the figure of Osiris in the Old Kingdom period is given precedence over the pharaoh "as if it were a title; later [Osiris] is placed before the name of each deceased individual," which shows that godhead could be incorporated in or infused humankind, the oneness symbolic of perfect communication between matter and spirit."
