Abstract The paper provides an overview of the green revolution and its selective breeding that produced crops that were better suited to changing climate conditions and production levels. The paper discusses how these crops could help curb starvation but looks at the limitations of current practices. The paper then discusses genetically modified crops and their benefits but explains why this development must proceed with even more caution than the green revolution.
Outline:
Early Methods
Helping to Curb Starvation
Limitations of Current Practices
Green Revolution Crops and GMOs
From the Paper "As the world population grows, humans face new challenges regarding how to feed the population. This problem is not new and industrialized nations led the race to develop crops that were more productive, disease resistant and that have more uses. During the 1960s and 1970s producers began an intensive program to develop crops that met the changing requirements of society. This is referred to as the "green revolution." This revolution was responsible for increases in food production in industrialized nations, but there are limitations as to what can be accomplished through these programs."
Tags: selective, breeding, genetic, engineering, traits, food, production
Abstract This paper discusses the biofuel developments in Brazil and the many issues surrounding it. It also serves as an introduction to biofuel efficacy and creates a sense of the current epicenter of biofuel use and production. The paper discusses the history of biofuel use in Brazil, the effects it has had on culture and economy, the pros and cons of biofuel, the import and export market effects, cost differentiation, sugar versus corn ethanol, auto technology in Brazil, and provides a discussion of US and other international responses to Brazil's programs.
Outline:
Executive Summary
History of Biofuel in Brazil
How Brazil Import Export Market is Effected
History and Policy of bio-diesel in Brazil
Affects on Culture and Economy in Brazil
Change of Dependence from Fossil Fuel to Biofuel Degree of Success
Environmental Effects
Pros of Biofuel
Cons of Biofuels
Cost of Oil vs. Ethanol
Sugar Ethanol vs. Corn Ethanol
US Response
From the Paper "The cost of oil versus ethanol is debated, as the whole picture is required for an understanding of the cost issue. With fossil fuel derived oil the earth has done the work of people with regard to creating a close to finished product. Though it is also important to note that depending on the feedstock used to create the fuel the cost can vary. Sugar ethanol is subsidized in Brazil, taxed at a lower rate and sold for half the price of traditional fuel, yet this does not completely reflect the cost in total of either. Cost must also be discussed with regards to vehicle changes, Brazil converted the car to met the fuel while most nations are doing the reverse, trying to build a car to run on a particular fuel, a more costly process. "
Abstract This paper discusses the pros and cons of genetically modified (GM)foods. The paper looks at one view that considers these foods as being an environmental and health risk and the contrasting view that it is the best hope of survival for millions of people in underdeveloped regions. The paper then argues that both views have merit and that a third more accommodating view should be adopted with regard to GM foods. The paper concludes by asking for a cautious approach to the problem as it carries many 'unknowns' and may not be worth the risk.
From the Paper "We should therefore take cognizance of these warnings. They cannot simply be waived away as just alarmist speculation. It was not so long ago that DDT, an insecticide that was for many years considered to be safe, was found to affect human breast milk and was banned from public use in 1972. We should therefore heed scientists who claim that, "we aren't yet sure what kinds of effects these foods could have on humans, on similar plants, or on the environment. Until we're sure, they should be avoided."
Abstract This paper introduces, discusses, and analyzes the topic of genetically modified (GM) crops. Specifically, the paper discusses the positive and negative responses from scientists and the general public to genetically modified foods, and assesses the potential of GM crops as a source of food.
From the Paper "GM crops and foods are not brand new technology; they have existed for many years. In fact, studies into genetically modifying plant crops began in the 1980s (Goldstein, and Goldstein, 2002, p. 235). Most GM crops are crops that scientists and researches have genetically altered. Essentially, the plant's DNA, or very specific genes, are transferred between one plant and another to create special characteristics, such as hardiness, etc. This helps the plant grow faster, stronger, and better, and sometimes even repel pests and weeds. Some people call this process "genetic engineering." The scientists take the finest qualities of one plant and mate them with another, different plant to create a new sub-species or even species (Editors, 2005)."
Abstract The paper looks at statistics on the extent of deforestation and identifies the broad and narrow definitions of deforestation. The paper then considers the pros and cons of microeconomic and regional studies and cross-national studies as methods of studying the tropical deforestation process. The paper goes on to explore the causes of deforestation, namely forest size, population growth, economic and debt service growth, agricultural growth, road development and level of democracy. The paper asserts that the solutions for deforestation problems of the global tropical forests must become the responsibility of every nation, since forests impact life on Earth for every single individual.
Outline:
Extent of Tropical Deforestation
Definition of Tropical Deforestation
Level of Tropical Deforestation Study
Causes of Deforestation
Deforestation Solutions and Forestry Management Strategies
From the Paper "Tropical forests are valued for the direct economic benefits and for the host of intangible benefits bestowed upon society. These forests have a special role in the conservation of biodiversity. It is well known that tropical forests, which occupy a mere 13.54 percent of total land area (FAO, 1997), contain around 70 percent of all species (WRI, 1996). Many of these species are threatened with extinction (Myers, 1988). Tropical rain forests have as high as 700 tree species per hectares (ha.) compared to 1 to 5 tree species in boreal forests (Botkin & Talbot, 1992). The rich biodiversity of tropical forests is a source of genetic material for genetic engineering. Also, around 500 million people, including 150 million indigenous people, live in or at the edge of the tropical forests (Roper and Roberts, 1999). Most of them are fully dependent on the forests not only for their livelihood, but also for their cultural and spiritual traditions."
Abstract The world's forests are under threat from illegal logging and deforestation generating damaging global environmental change. While the forestry sector can contribute to reducing poverty and enhancing sustainability, this can only occur with the right forest policies and practices. Through a literature review, this paer attempts to show that appropriate forest policy, democratic leadership, strong institutions, bottom-up decision making - in short good forest governance arrangements - are increasingly recognized as essential to achieve sustainable forest management. The paper also develops the concept of good forest governance and uses it to compare the policies and practices of forested countries in Asia and the Pacific.
Outline:
Background
Literature Review
From the Paper "The work of Antonio P. Contreras (2006) entitled: "Civil Society and Forest Governance in Southeast Asia: Towards an Alternative Model in Addressing Transboundary Forest-Related Conflicts" states that the relations "...between states and civil societies have long been established as a critical and complex one. States emerge and gain legitimacy from civil society institutions and processes, even as the sate limits civil societies through legal-bureaucratic mechanisms manifested in law and public policy. With the increasing role of civil society institutions in recent years, state policy, including foreign policy, has become a new domain for civil society engagement." (Contreras, 2006) It is stated however, the there has been an increasing in the participation of civil society in both domestic and regional environmental governance in Southeast Asia. "
Abstract The subject under review here stems from the need for the world to transfer its oil dependence to an alternative source of energy. The research presented constitutes an endorsement for a different form of alternative fuel from petroleum or biofuel. It also helps shed light on the drawbacks to biofuel as they outweigh the prospective benefits.
Outline:
Abstract
Executive Summary
Proposal: Critical Literature Review
Objective
Research Question and Thesis
Introduction
Literature Review
Findings
Discussion
From the Paper "There is a clear and irrevocable need for the world community and major industrialized nations such as the United States to reduce their dependency on petroleum which, as a fuel source, is environmentally destructive and precipitous of fractious world politics. A popular interest has developed on the part of those in the agriculture and oil industries, as well as within the American government, of considering the potential value of biofuel as a viable alternative fuel source. Typically taking the form of ethanol, biofuel is in that context an alcohol-based fuel converted from the fermented sugars of plant cellulose. Given this point of origin, it is generally a cleaner burning fuel than most fossil fuels. For this reason, biofuels have commanded a great deal of attention in the discourse over possible alternative fuel foci."
Abstract The paper explores the long-term prospects of GM crops by looking at the scientific controversies regarding these crops' effects on our health, effects on children, their impact on the environment and the possibility of gene contamination. The paper shows how it is not yet clear if the biotechnological revolution is destined to be the magical cure for the famine-torn third world nations or just a temporary solution that may be ridden with unwanted health and economic consequences. The paper concludes that with the divided opinions as to the safety of GM crops, embracing the 'biotechnology way' as a solution presents a difficult choice.
Outline:
Abstract
Introduction
GM Food Regulations and Patenting
GM Foods (Health Effects)
Antibiotic Marker Genes (Danger for Children)
The Environmental Factor
Gene Contamination
Conclusion
From the Paper "Biotechnology has advanced at an amazing pace and what was only a talk in the last decade is now already a reality. GM food has become a topic of heated debate over the last few years. The ethical perceptions and opinions about GM food are quite varied. Robert Shapiro the CEO of Monsanto feels, "There now exists an opportunity to create a genuine science of nutrition, something that has never existed in human history". In the UK prince Charles' opinion, "I happen to believe that this kind of genetic modification takes mankind into the realms that belong to God, and God alone" [Michael Specter] Besides the ethics of GM food, issues pertaining to the health, environmental effects, Patents and safety regulations and other public concerns have to be carefully ascertained. With millions of people in African (Sudan, Zambia, etc) countries facing chronic hunger and severely malnourished the prospect of GM food as a potential solution to the food crisis needs to be rigorously evaluated."
Abstract The paper presents the thesis that a healthy forest environment and good forest management is essential in that forests are important for the general environment. The paper's thesis further states that maintenance and restoration of the forest systems in the United States and other areas of the world is directly related to the health of the global environment and related ecosystems. The paper provides a literature review and summarizes its findings in the conclusion.
Outline:
Introduction
Literature review
Conclusion
From the Paper "There is a plethora of evidence from studies on environmental research to suggest that healthy forests are of vital importance to the balance in nature and ultimately for human existence. Forests not only provide clean water but also "...support livelihoods, shelter wildlife and help maintain a stable climate" (Fire and Conservation). The last mentioned aspect, the maintenance of a stable climate, has in recent years become a central focus of ecological and environmental concerns in the light of global warming."
Abstract This paper argues that the large-scale diversion of food-crops towards bio-fuels is an ill-advised move that could have catastrophic consequences against little gain. The paper reveals that the large-scale diversion of food crops such as corn for producing ethanol has resulted in sky-rocketing food prices around the world. The paper also discusses the indirect effects of producing ethanol that arguably results in greater emission of carbon-dioxide as large forested areas, particularly in the Amazon, are cleared for growing crops. The paper argues further that corn-based ethanol is an unviable proposition, mainly because the ethanol would anyway only fulfill a minuscule amount of the total gasoline requirement in the country. The paper therefore concludes that producing corn-based ethanol is simply not worth the human suffering and environmental damage it can cause.
Outline:
Rising Grain and Food Prices
Effect on the Amazon
Corn-based Ethanol is Unviable
Conclusion
From the Paper "Barely a couple of years ago bio ethanol fuel was the undisputed 'darling' of environmentalists and government policy makers alike. It was being touted as a clean and renewable alternative to fossil fuels that would tame the galloping oil prices, cure the United State's 'addiction' to imported oil, and control the on-going global warming threatening the world's environment. The overenthusiastic proponents of bio-fuels had obviously not catered for the unintended consequences of an untried policy. The large-scale diversion of food crops such as corn for producing ethanol has resulted in sky-rocketing food prices around the world, and precipitated the worst food crisis in decades."
Tags: grain, food, prices, agriculture, Amazon, environment, energy
Abstract In this article, the writer notes that there is an increasingly comprehensive body of literature outlining the role that fire plays in the forest ecosystem. The writer discusses that several sources tie the role of fire to some of the present issues in the national parks and forests today; and illustrates how controlled or prescribed burns can be a positive tool in the practice of forest management. The writer maintains that suppression of burning leads to a variety of problems, including the eradication of certain species and the increased the risk of catastrophic fire. The writer concludes that by using controlled or prescribed burns, forest managers can reduce these negative outcomes, for the long-term health of the forests they manage by fostering conditions closer to those that occur in nature. Further, the writer notes that there are a wide range of examples of successful controlled burn programs that can be drawn on for insight and inspiration.
From the Paper "In a 2005 article in National Parks Magazine, S. Kirkwood outlines how regrowth after a fire begins immediately. As more sunlight and rainfall reach the ground, grass and flowers quickly sprout from the soil, which has been enriched with ash.
"Turner, Hargrove, Gardner and Romme analyze in the Journal of Vegetation Science the relationship between heterogeneity and fire size. This work is based on a study of certain scientific after effects of burning in Yellowstone. The information gleaned from this report allows forest managers to determine strategic locations for planting certain types of plant species after fires."
Abstract The paper provides statistics on agricultural production within Italy and reveals that the general trend of the Italian agricultural sector is that of stagnation, towards a decline. The paper looks at Italy's land quality and agricultural practices and discusses Italy's implementation of policies aimed to revive and strengthen the sector.
Outline:
Abstract
Agricultural Production
Land Quality
Agricultural Practices
Policies
Conclusions
From the Paper "Agriculture is one of the oldest activities undergone by the humans in order to sustain life. And it was the primary source of food and income for the majority of individuals across the globe. However, with the industrial and technological revolutions, more and more people begun to work within factories or corporations and less interest was given to agricultural activities. But even so, the technological developments were also adapted and integrated within the processes of growing animals and working the land, agriculture remaining the primary source of foods in the modern society."
Abstract This paper takes a look at the practice of factory farming in the United States. While the paper concedes that these new age farms have found innovative ways to produce meat and food for the increasing demand, the methods involved, crowded conditions, and problems caused to the environment are less than beneficial. The author describes how the factory farms have deteriorated the environment by polluting waterways and producing greenhouse gases as well as the unnatural and overcrowded conditions that livestock now live in. The paper also mentions the additional health problems that humans will encounter as we eat the products from these farms and fill our bodies with unnatural bi-products. In closing, the author urges the public to stop destroying the environment by overconsumption and to support free range farmers.
From the Paper "The United States livestock industry is certainly not the shining example of how animals should be treated, but it is certainly a vital part of agriculture in this country. There has been a major shift in the way livestock is produced and grown in the last several decades. Small family farms have been replaced by large corporately owned factory farms. These new age farms have caused major problems for our environment, our health, and our animals. Huge factory farms have become the predominant method of raising livestock, and the crowded conditions in these facilities have caused water and air pollution, caused health problems, and caused harm to overall public health. There is no doubt that these farms have found innovative ways to produce meat and food for our increasing demand, but these ways are simply not healthy for humans, animals, and the earth."
Abstract This paper discusses how genetic engineering (GE) has made it possible to alleviate food shortages by inducing viral resistance in plants. Since the discovery and development of genetic engineering methods, many strategies for introducing viral resistance into crop plants have been researched and implemented, and several are described. The author explains how both pathogen-derived resistance (PDR) and non-PDR methods show great promise for the future; crop yields of many different plants throughout the world can potentially benefit from GE technology. Papaya and potato are only two of a large number of food-producing plants that have already been engineered successfully, and more successes will certainly follow in future years.
Outline:
Introduction
Background of Genetic Engineering in Plants
Pathogen-Derived Resistance
Non-Pathogen-Derived Resistance
Using Genetic Engineering to Confer Viral Resistance
Genetically Engineered Resistance Strategies
Conclusion
From the Paper "Previous to the rise of genetic engineering, plant breeders had to rely on traditional methods of selecting for viral resistance in plants. This was a time-consuming and imprecise process; the development of transgene technology has allowed this to become a much more exact and effective science. While methods of introducing resistance into plants are advancing almost daily, there are a few solid methods that have been used consistently since their discovery, including coat-protein mediated resistance (CPMR), post-transcriptional gene silencing (PTGS), ribosomal inactivating proteins, and resistance (R) genes. These differing methods can confer different types of resistance (e.g. against broad or narrow ranges of viruses) and are often chosen depending on which type of virus is being targeted (Dasgupta et al. 2003)."
Abstract The paper discusses the rise of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (MRSA), which is a superbug arising from the often unnecessary usage of antibiotics. The paper focuses on the rise of antibiotics in livestock and their feedlots and also notes the often unnecessary prescriptions of antibiotics by physicians. The paper asserts that if we don't change now, there may be more bacterial infections that become immune to treatment with antibiotics.
From the Paper "In 1968 the first case of MRSA was discovered. The patient was of middle age, had been in the hospital for quite some time, and had just had surgery. The patient had been on antibiotics to prevent infection. Little did the doctors know, but the infection was developing despite the powerful dosage of antibiotics, and MRSA was formed.
"Since 1968, there has been an alarming increase of MRSA reported each year. We, as a society, have allowed antibiotics to get the upper hand - creating a situation that is in need of immediate and thorough review."
