Abstract Agriculture, once a means of survival in America, has now become an industry, which generates millions of dollars a year. Before agriculture, humankind relied on hunting, fishing, and gathering in the wild to survive. People were known as hunters and gatherers, but soon became farmers. Once farming was introduced, humans were able to become much more sedentary because they did not have to move from place to place looking for sustenance. This paper shows that, once human creativity was unleashed, Americans began to understand the magnitude of profit and livelihood that agriculture held. To understand the full magnitude of the agriculture commodity trade, this paper examines the history of the trade, the policies/programs affecting the trade, and the standards set for the trade before it can be sold.
From the Paper "As long as human beings are in need of food to survive, the agricultural commodity trade will exist. Agriculture today is a complex system of production, distribution, research, and marketing. People desire option and depend on other people as well as other nations to supply them with a variety of product. The United States has a stable position in the agricultural commodity trade and this will remain stable with the right programs and policies put into action. Technology has helped stabilize the agricultural commodity trade in America and other advanced countries. Threats of drought, under-production, and other natural disasters have been lowered. After learning about the history of the trade as well as the policies and programs affecting the trade, it is easy to conclude that it is important to the U.S. economy. Compliance with policies and programs will only help farmers remain in competition to become profitable."
Abstract This paper discusses the problems facing the African food supply. Genetically altered crops are studied as a way to help fight famine in many parts of Africa. The study of native foods is integrated into the paper, and specific countries are presented as case studies. Various works are cited in order to look at several possibilities to resolve the problems in Africa.
From the Paper "In Ghana during the green revolution, there was a push to try for mechanized agriculture, and produce monoculture crops. During the drive, thousands of people were displaced by the Volta dam, which went into use in 1990. The government created 52 townships in order to relocate indigenous people (AppiahOpoku 2004). During this time, Ghana made no attempt to judge the environmental impacts of the project. This decision would destroy a great deal of biodiversity, and at the same time, put skepticism into the minds of farmers. Indigenous ecological knowledge (IEK) was not used and the biodiversity was hurt (AppiahOpoku 2004)."
Abstract This paper discusses the occurrence of malaria in Sub-Saharan Africa. The paper reviews the first program to control the spread of malaria in Sub-Saharan African countries that started in the 1920's with larval restraint. The governments in Sub-Saharan Africa have encouraged policies that target the destruction of the mosquitoes that cause this disease, since reliable means to contain this disease are out of their reach. These policies have paved way for excessive utilization of man-made insect-killers, mainly dichlorodiphenyl trichioroethane (DDT). This man-made insect-killer is said to possess extreme side affects to both the environment and the human life. The paper examines the reasons that have triggered the developed world to ban the use of DDT and explores the attempts to influence Third World countries to also take the initiative to ban the use of DDT. The paper demonstrates that malaria entails exceedingly important economic expenditures on Sub-Saharan African countries.
Outline
Executive Summary
Background of the Study
Statement of the Problem
Purpose of the Study
Significance of the Study
Research Questions
Review of the Literature
Malaria Incidence in Sub-Saharan Africa
Age and Gender Analysis of Malaria Cases
Financial Expenses of Malaria Treatment
Malaria Prevention and Control in Sub-Saharan Africa
Pertinent Foundation
DDT is Necessary to Control Malaria
Abolishing the Use of DDT
Function of the World Health Organization
Influence of International Policies
Methodology
Collection of Data
Data Analysis and Search Tactics
Discussion
Conclusion
From the Paper "It is common knowledge that malaria is the world's most lethal bloodsucking infection. Malaria takes life from more people than any other infectious virus, apart from tuberculosis (TB). Despite the fact that the geological region influenced by malaria has reduced drastically in size in the preceding five decades, restraining Malaria has turned out to be extremely difficult, in fact impossible, and the efforts and improvements by the respective governments have been wasted.
The infection is passed on by Anopheline mosquitoes, the figure and kind of which establish the degree of flow in a specified region. Augmented threat of the infection is related with transformations in the utilization of land concerning actions like highway construction, mining, logging, as well as, farming and irrigation ventures, predominantly in border regions like the Sub-Sahara Africa. One of the cures for this ailment that has been extremely useful is the utilization of DDT."
Abstract This paper argues that, although science has not established that genetically modified foods are dangerous and carry a health risk, they should be labeled because they may contain ingredients that cause allergies. It explains that consumer laws state that people have a right to information regarding the products they purchase; not informing consumers deprives them of their right to free choice.
From the Paper "People are worried about the food they eat, the water they drink and the air they breathe. They have a right to be as in recent years, it seems to observers, that the rates of diseases such as cancer have increased tremendously and that new diseases, previously unheard of, such as Mad Cow and Sars, are threatening lives and health. It may be that people are healthier now than they ever previously were but, many do not think so and are very anxious about the spread of these deadly diseases. More importantly, many assume that these diseases are spread through the food that we eat. Needless to say, this has created greater consumer interest in the types of food purchased and consumed. Much of this interest is focused on genetically modified foods. Genetic modification according to Mark Tester, a professor of plant sciences at Cambridge University, is the heritable alteration of genes. The definition provided offers a very good clue why people fear GM foods and believe that they have harmful effects on the health. Quite simply stated, they are not natural foods but foods that have been created through human sciences that changed the biological make up of these foods. Some, including scientists, insist that these foods are safe. Dan Ferber, a science writer, insists on the safety of GM foods, further arguing that the current genetically modified foods are nothing more than an advance on techniques of improving crops and crop types that have existed and been practices over the centuries (1663-1664)."
Abstract This paper discusses genetic modification (GM) farming and analyzes the problems associated with the use of genetically modified food crops by a study of some recent scientific articles, which espouse this viewpoint. The paper contends that the rapid advancements in genomic science have created new possibilities in the fields of agriculture and in the treatment and management of diseases. The biotech revolution characterized by genetically engineered food products is regarded as a boon to the human society, a life-saving solution to manage the food crisis of our globe.
From the Paper "Altering specific sequences of DNA allows plants to develop resistance to pesticides, resulting in increased yield. Using genetic engineering methods such as electroporation, gene gun, gene silencing and vector mediated transfer, scientists are now able to insert a new gene or control the expression of an already present gene in a plant. [UCS] In a special report from the 'New scientist' the author discusses some of the possibilities of applying genomic science into farming practices. Using these biotech processes scientists have created disease and herbicide resistant crops promising huge increase in productivity. The result of this biotech revolution was amazing. Vitamin boosted rice, Onions without tears, potatoes enriched with proteins, Soya built resistant to pesticides, and even caffeine free coffee became a reality and bio-engineered products offered endless possibilities."
Abstract This paper argues that, due to Egypt's need for export earnings, its ever-increasing population, and its expertise in agriculture, the country should further invest in research and development, with an emphasis on R&D that leads to producing genetically modified crops. It explains that, despite Egypt's having limited financial resources, increased investment in biotechnological research and development will not be a waste of these resources, as the return on that investment will be substantial.
From the Paper "Innovation is the ability to manage knowledge, as embodied in technology, in a creative way" ("United Nations"). The terms technology, knowledge and innovation are interrelated. Technological discoveries are derived from knowledge and result in innovation which then exploited to increase productivity and enhance competitiveness in the global market. Among the more significant innovations derived from knowledge, produced by research and technology, is the field of biotechnology. David R. Walwyn, a BSc chemical engineering, who has participated in several biotechnology policies and strategy initiatives, defines biotechnology in his book Biotechnologies, as "a body of techniques that uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use." Biotechnology contributes to several life sectors, including health, food, water treatment and agriculture. Agricultural biotechnology, nowadays, is adopted in the majority of countries, particularly developing ones, due to its ability to produce transgenic seeds with modified traits that are resistant to viruses, insects, drought and salinity. Edgar J. DaSilva, Elias Baydon, a professor of Biology in American University in Beirut, and Adnan Badran, president of Philadelphia University in Jordan, stress the significance of biotechnology to developing countries in the Electronic Journal of Biotechnology. As they write, "biotechnology has become a source of economic development and social progress."
Abstract There are several areas of concern for agricultural economists, when they look towards the future. Some of these areas of interest are nutrition & health, the possibility of using food products for other uses than consumption and genetic adaptation of crops. However, three major interests of agricultural economists are the supply of food available, farm productivity and profits and agriculture production that will be friendly to the environment. This paper discusses these issues.
From the Paper "The first consideration in food security is the rising temperatures of the world. According to Lester Brown, the "16 warmest years since record-keeping began in 1880 have occurred since 1980. With the three warmest years on record-1998, 2001 and 2003-coming in the last five years, crops are facing unprecedented heat stress" (Brown 1). The heat stress on plants globally impacts evaporation and impedes fertilization, leading to production of fewer crops. Fewer crops will lead to increased prices in food, particularly for countries that import much of their food, principally grain."
Abstract This paper presents a research proposal that will confirm that sediments of the small pond discussed in the paper, like larger bodies of water, will contain significant amounts of P and N, and that these sediments will be one of the sources responsible for the increasing incidence of eutrophic or hypereutrophic in the nation's systems of ponds, rivers, lakes and streams.
From the Paper "Over the millennia, water has provided humankind with numerous products and services, including transportation, food, drinking water, irrigation, recreation, and protection. Unfortunately, the world's lakes, rivers, and oceans have also been used as a dumping ground for by-products of industrial development and residential refuge. Until recently, however, there was very little attention was paid to water quality (Faeth & Greenhalgh, 2001). Today, the contamination of natural waters such as ponds, lakes, and rivers by anthropogenic organic chemicals has assumed major importance for environmental protectionists. A number of studies over the years have documented how many synthetic organic compounds, although applied or introduced to confined locations, tend to become widely dispersed even to the "ends of the earth" (Schwarzenbach, Haderlein, Muller & Ulrich, 1998). Today, the diffuse loss of phosphorus (P) from agricultural land is generally regarded as a major contributor to eutrophication of fresh water, and there has been a significant increase in research into this issue recently (Fertilizer Applications Influence Phosphorus Runoff, 2004)."
Abstract This paper provides an overview of hydraulic conductivity, how it is measured, and why it is important for transient storage. A review of current issues in hydraulic conductivity is followed by a summary of the research in the conclusion.
From the Paper " In 2003, Thomas, Valetta, Webster and Mulholland (2003), reported they had developed the Regression Partitioning Method (RPM) for estimating the proportion of reactive solute uptake occurring within transient storage zones of streams. "The RPM is a technique for analyzing solute addition data in which whole stream uptake (mg m−2 d−1) is determined from the longitudinal pattern in plateau tracer concentrations. At one location, a time series of samples are collected that define the 'rising limb' of the solute breakthrough curve" (Thomas et al. 965). These researcher estimated the y-intercept by regressing a measure of reactive tracer availability (e.g., NO3-15N:Cl ratio) as well as the percentage of tracer that has resided within, and returned from, the transient storage zone (i.e. hyporheic zone), which was then used to predict channel-specific NO3 uptake rates. The uptake within the transient storage zone of stream-derived material was calculated by difference."
Abstract This paper explains that the countries most affected by the debate surrounding genetically modified (GM) foods are Middle Eastern and Third World countries, which stand to reap the benefits of solving widespread starvation, and countries such as the United States, that are robust suppliers of GM foods. The author points out that, like all new technologies, GM pose some risks, both known and unknown; controversies surrounding GM foods and crops commonly focus on human and environmental safety, labeling and consumer choice, intellectual property rights, ethics, food security, poverty reduction and environmental conservation. The paper stresses that the likelihood that poorer countries will not be able to produce GM foods is very high because of their lack of money, resources and technology to produce them.
From the Paper "Therefore, in addition to conserving water by improving leaf characteristics, plant roots may be genetically modified to improve water uptake from the soil. Some plants such as mesquite trees prosper in extreme deserts because their roots grow to great depths to reach underground water supplies. Water channels--that is, proteins that transport water across cell membranes--are likely key players and thus good targets for genetic modification. Drought problems cause hardship to farmers worldwide. Genetic improvement of drought tolerance of crop plants through traditional breeding or gene engineering has shown encouraging signs that plants can be genetically modified to better cope with drought."
Abstract This paper presents an overview of the age old process of raising shellfish and finned fish on inland farms, known as "aquaculture". The paper takes a look at the ancient history of aquaculture as well as its more recent history in the Midwest/great plains region of the United States. The paper also includes information on the current status of aquaculture and concludes that it is a process that is both well-established and a boon to farmers and consumers alike.
Introduction
History of Aquaculture
History of Midwest Aquaculture
Current Status of Midwestern Aquaculture
Conclusion
From the Paper "Except for bucolic scenes of fishing on rivers meandering across the Midwest and Great Plains, most people don't equate fish with that region, at least not huge catches of commercial fish. However, as long ago as 1996, "traders in the 'futures pit' of the Minneapolis Grain Exchange were shouting and signaling bids and offers for spring wheat, white wheat, white shrimp and black tiger shrimp" (Weber 1996). Moreover, the shrimp being traded in Minneapolis was of interest to the local trading office of the Thai government (Weber 1996); Thai food depends heavily on shrimp, so finding it at commodity prices is important to the Thai people."
Abstract This paper examines the disastrous effects of deforestation. The paper explains that deforestation is detrimental to all of the plant and animal species of the world, including humans. The paper associates deforestation with a host of negative consequences and states that it stands poised to threaten the future of life on earth. The paper discusses habitat destruction and loss of biodiversity as a result of deforestation. The moral objections to deforestation are presented in the paper.
From the Paper "Deforestation can also have more immediate affects. Clear cutting of forests has been connected to regional increases in mercury levels in lakes and drinking water (Box, 2003). The natural biologic cycles within forests commonly retain the mercury that is released into the atmosphere from coal power plants and incinerators. When the forests are destroyed this mercury is left behind to seep into the ground. This poses an immediate and glaring problem for any members of nearby communities. This remains a significant problem, especially in industrialized nations, who have been forced to adopt more expensive water treatment practices as a result."
Abstract This paper presents a brief background to issues surrounding dam construction. The paper examines the failure of the Teton Dam, citing the reasons for the disaster. The paper highlights the events of the fateful day of the failure of the dam. The lessons learned from this tragedy are outlined in the paper.
Outline
Introduction
Physical Aspects
Political, Social and Economic Factors
Responses and Impact
Future Implications
From the Paper "There are countless dams in the United States and throughout the world. They range from massive hydroelectric complexes, to smaller earthen or cement structures largely used for flood control and irrigation purposes. Although most dams are useful, safe structures, the principles of dam construction-especially on medium to large scales-are difficult and precise. When omissions or errors in engineering or implementation of engineering principles are accidentally made, overlooked, or outright ignored serious and sometimes catastrophic failures can result."
Abstract This paper explains that the cowboy ("vaqueros", Spanish,which evolved from the root word, "vaca" meaning cow) was first introduced in 1598 in the United States then known as the New Mexico Kingdom. The author points out that the American cowboys of the late 1800's trail drives came from Anglo-Saxon, Celtic and Gaelic roots in the British Isles thus their distinctive lingo was based generally on the English language; their poems and songs are a part of the old tradition of balladry, the modern form of which is called western music. The paper relates that modern cowboys are still working in comfortable homes with their families, use advanced technology and husbandry in working cattle, use horses on the range but trucks are more common and helicopters and airplanes are used to supplement horses in herding cattle
From the Paper "Equestrians, mounted horsemen, date back to 4000 B.C. and can be seen in Mesolithic representations of halters on domesticated horses. Archaeological evidence of horsemen in Spain can be found in rock art dating before 2000 B.C. and "in fragments of Celtic weapons, horseshoes, bridle bits and prick spurs by 500 B.C.." Other evidence from this same era include "bent-knee riders in saddles of concave silhouette" that appear in Iberian stone carvings, bronze castings, and vase paintings. During the Middle Ages, mounted herdsmen were a frequent fixture on the semi-arid lands of Spain, but rare in many other European countries, such as England and France."
Abstract This paper examines how genetic modification (GM), often known by the less ominous name of biotechnology, is the science of improving the genetic characteristics of plants to produce better, more healthful foods, as well as foods resistant to certain pests and those which will survive under harsh conditions. It looks at how, with the advent of gene technology, biotechnologists are now able to more easily produce abundant, better-quality and more nutritious food supplies to consumers.
From the Paper "There are many arguable benefits to the modification of our foods, many of which are already in practice. The key difference between conventional breeding and genetic modification is that in the past it has only been possible to transfer traits between plants and animals of the same or very similar species. GM allows splicing between completely different species and even the combination of plant and animal genes. Because of this technology, scientists have now been able to create, for example, a type of maize that produces a protein from the bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis. This protein kills the insect called a corn borer which is known to do considerable damage to maize crops."
